LIBRARY 

OF    THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 
Class 


THK 


PRINCIPLES  AND    PRACTICE 


OP 


LAND    DRAINAGE 


EMBRACING 

A  BRIEF  HISTORY  OP  UNDERDRAINING ;    A  DETAILED  EXAMINA- 
TION OP   ITS    OPERATION    AND    ADVANTAGES :    A   DESCRIP- 
TION   OP     VARIOUS    KINDS    OP    DRAINS,  WITH    PRAC- 
TICAL   DIRECTIONS    FOR    THEIR    CONSTRUCTION: 
THE    MANUFACTURE    OP    DRAIN-TILE,    ETC. 


Illustrated  by  nearly  100  Engravings. 


BY  JOHN  H.  KLIPPART, 

Author  of  the  "  Wheat  Plant,"  Corresponding  Secretary  of  the  Ohio  State 
Board  of  Agriculture,  Etc. 


^ &  $  A 


C  I  N  €  I  X  X  A  T  I : 

ROBERT    CLARKE    &    CO., 

PUBLISHERS  AND  BOOKSELLERS. 
1861. 


O- 


Entered,  according  to  act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  181)1, 
BY  ROBERT  CLARKE  &  CO., 

In  the   Clerk's    Office  of  the  District  Court   of  the  United  States  for  the 
Southern  District  of  Ohio. 


CINCINNATI :     . 

E  .      MO  R CAN     &     SONS, 

Stereotypera  and  Printers,  111  Mniit  >SV. 


PREFACE. 


THIS  treatise  is  presented  to  the  public  as  a  brief  dis- 
cussion of  the  most  important  considerations  involved  in 
Land  Drainage.  The  writer  has  not  aimed  to  produce  an 
original  work,  but  has  endeavored  to  collate  well  ascer- 
tained facts,  and  present  them  in  as  brief  a  space  as  the 
nature  of  the  subject  would  permit.  The  productions  of 
the  best  writers  on  the  subject  in  Great  Britain,  France 
and  Germany,  as  well  as  the  current  agricultural  publica- 
tions of  this  country,  whether  serial  or  otherwise,  have 
been  consulted  in  the  preparation  of  this  volume ;  while 
the  numerous  opportunities  which  presented  themselves 
to  the  author,  in  fulfilling  his  duties  in  connection  with 
the  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  for  observing  the  prac- 
tical details  of  the  work  by  visiting  places  where  draining 
operations  were  conducted,  tile  manufactured,  etc.,  have 
been  cheerfully  embraced,  and  the  results  embodied  in 
the  work. 

It  may  not  be  improper  to  state  that  the  work  was  un- 
dertaken at  the  earnest  solicitation  of  the  Committee  on 
Agriculture  of  the  Ohio  Legislature,  during  the  session 
of  1858-9.  The  engravings  were  ordered  and  the  greater 
portion  of  them  finished  before  the  appearance  of  Judge 
French's  excellent  work  on  the  same  subject ;  it  was  then 
too  late  to  abandon  the  project. 

The  work  is  respectfully  submitted  to  the  judgment  of 
the  farmers  of  the  Great  Northwest,  in  the  hope  that  it 
may  be  found  not  altogether  unuseful  to  them  in  their  en- 
deavors to  improve  their  property. 

(iii) 

.  144188 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTORY. 

DEFINITION,         -  .  ,_  •;.«.--• _.•     -.  ... 

History  of  Drainage  among  the  Ancients, 
Drain  Pipes  used  in  France,  A.  D.  1620,    - 

Drainage  in  England, 

Drainage  in  France, 

Drainage  in  the  United  States,        - 


-  1 
4 

-  13 
15 

-  26 
27 


PART  I.— THEORY  OF  DRAINAGE. 
Introduction, 39 

CHAPTER  I.  Properties  of  Soils, 42 

CHAPTER  II.  How  Drainage  operates — How  it  affects  Soils,  60 
CHAPTER  HI.  Drainage  removes  Stagnant  Waters  from  the 

Surface, 72 

CHAPTER  IV.  Drainage  removes  Surplus  "Water  from  under 

the  Surface, 98 

CHAPTER  V.  Drainage  lengthens  the  Working  Season,  -  112 
CHAPTER  VI.  Drainage  deepens  the  Soil,  •  -  -  119 


CHAPTER       VII.  Drainage  warms  the  Undersoil, 


-  128 


Vi  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER     VIII.  Drainage   equalizes  the  Temperature  of  the 

Soil  during  the  Season  of  Growth,  -        -  133 
CHAPTER        IX.  Drainage  carries  down  Soluble  Substances  to 

the  Roots  of  Plants,        -        -        -        -  134 
CHAPTER          X.  Drainage  prevents  "  Heaving  out,"  "  Freezing 

out,"  or  "  Winter  killing,"       -        -        -144 

CHAPTER         XI.  Drainage  prevents  injury  from  Drought,     -      147 
CHAPTER       "III.  Drainage  improves  the  Quantity  and  Quality 

of  the  Crops,  -  -  153 

CHAPTER     XIII.  Drainage  increases  the  Effects  of  Manures,       165 
CHAPTER     XIV.  Drainage  prevents  Rust  in  Wheat,  and  Rot 

in  Potatoes,  169 

CHAPTER       XV.  Other  Advantages  of  Draining,  -        -  171 

CHAPTER     XVI.  Will  Drainage  pay  ? 173 

CHAPTER   XVII.  What  lands  need  Draining,         -        -        -       177 
CHAPTER  XVIII.  On  the  Absorbing  Qualities  of  Soil,  and  Ana- 
lysis of  Drain  Water,      -        -        -        -187 


CONTENTS. 


Vll 


CHAPTER 


CHAPTER 


PART  II.— PRACTICE   OF  DRAINAGE. 

I.  Practical  Drainage, 217 

Materials    for    keeping    Open     the    Water- 
courses,     2  IS 

Brush  Drains,  -        -      222 

Plug,  or  Subsoil  Draining,      ....  220 
Wedge,  or  Shoulder  Drains, 
Mole  Plow  Draining,       .... 
Sheep  Drains,          - 

Stone  Drains, 

Tile  Drains, 

II.  Size  of  Tile, 


CHAPTER 
CHAPTER 
CHAPTER 


229 
231 
248 
250 
261 

272 


Caliber  and  Minimum  Fall  of  Drain  Pipe 


Tile, 275 

Discharge  of  Water  through  Pipes,     -        -      281 

III.  Depth  of  Drains,  284 

IV.  Distance  between  Drains,    ....      301 
V.  Manufacture  of  Tile, 324 

Selection  of  Materials,  324 

The  Pug  Mill, 339 

The  Roller  Mill, 340 

Tile  Machines, 342 

Pressing  the  Pipes, 348 

Drying  Tile,  ...  -  .  -  -  349 
Rolling  and  Rimming  Tile,  ...  354 
Tile  Burning, 355 


Viii  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER          V.  Manufacture  of  Tile — Continued. 

Tile  Kilns,   -  -356 

Fuel, 359 

CHAPTER         VI.  How  Water  enters  the  Pipes,     •-        -        -      363 
CHAPTER      VJI.  Durability  of  Tile,  -  -  367 

CHAPTER     VIII.  Laying  out  Drains, 370 

CHAPTER         IX.  Main  Drains,  -        -        -        -  -  381 

CHAPTER          X.  Draining  Tools,  Instruments,  etc.,       -        -      387 

CHAPTER         XL  Digging  Underdrains, 394 

CHAPTER       XII.  Time  to  cut  Drains  and  lay  Tile,  410 

CHAPTER     XIII.  Obstructions  in  Drains, 414 

Conclusion, •     -        -        -        -      421 

APPENDIX — Laws  of  Ohio  relating  to  Drainage,  -  425 

Index, 433 


LAND     DKAINAGE. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


DEFINITION. 

DRAINAGE  of  land,  or  farm  drainage,  may  be  defined  as 
being  a  process  by  which  wet  and  unhealthy  soils  may  be 
rendered  arable  and  healthy,  as  well  as  to  remove  excess- 
ive moisture  in  lands  not  generally  considered  too  wet. 

The  word  drainage,  when  used  in  an  isolated  sense, 
means  drying  up,  running  off  of  stagnant  water.  It  is 
also  applied  to  a  series  of  works  which  are  undertaken  in 
order  to  improve  the  sanitary  condition  of  whole  sections 
of  country  or  a  large  city,  to  change  the  course  of  a 
river,  and  to  protect  its  cultivated  banks  against  floods. 
General  drainage  is  that  which  constitutes  a  whole  sys- 
tem of  great  works  stretching  over  entire  valleys,  and 
regulate  all  its  running  water ;  agricultural  drainage  re- 
fers to  fields  only. 

Drainage,  as  practiced  at  the  present  time,  is  an  im- 
provement, or  a  transformation  of  the  old  system  for  dry- 
ing up  moist  soils  by  means  of  trenches  or  ditches,  for 
the  discharge  of  water,  which  was  known  and  resorted  to 
everywhere  in  former  times. 

It  is,  nevertheless,  true,  that  tire  transition  or  change 

from  trenches  or  uncovered  ditches  filled  with  stones,  to 

the  new  mode  of  draining,  was  a  slow  process,  which  may 

explain  why  many  persons,  when  they  learn  of  the  u  new  " 

2  i 


2  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

drainage,  will  exclaim:  "But  this  is  not  new,  that  was 
practiced  by  our  fathers."  These  persons  are  right. 
But,  as  far  as  arts  and  science  are  concerned,  all  is  be- 
coming singularly  perfect  in  our  days,  so  that  we  do  not 
always  recognize  the  starting  point.  This  was  the  case 
with  the  new  system  of  drainage  which  conducts  the  ex- 
cess of  water  from  tillable  lands  through  earthen  pipes 
of  moderate  length,  placed  under  ground  at  a  depth  of 
from  three  to  four  feet. 

But  how  can  the  water  be  led  off  through  such  earthen 
pipes  ?  we  often  have  been  asked.  In  1852,  Mr.  Daniol, 
a  skillful  agriculturist,  at  Clermont  Ferrant,  in  France, 
wrote  to  Mons.  Barras,  editor  of  an  agricultural  journal: 

"  New  words  used  by  scientific  writers  often  cause  embarrass- 
ment to  their  readers.  When  the  Journal  of  Practical  Agriculture 
indicates  drainage  as  a  potent  system  of  rendering  wet  lands  arable; 
when  you  praised  the  advantages  which  are  obtained  in  England  and 
Belgium,  you  excited  my  curiosity  and  highly  engrossed  my  atten- 
tion. But  having  discovered  that  drainage  is  the  very  thing  we  re- 
Bort  to  from  father  to  son,  and  which  we  name  like  OLIVER  DE 
SERRES,  subterranean  passages,  I  experienced  a  sense  of  satisfaction 
and  said  to  myself,  is  that  all  ?  what  next  ? 

"  Next,  you  indicate,  for  the  purpose,  earthen  pipes  as  the  most 
efficient  and  economic  implement!  I  vainly  endeavored  to  per- 
ceive how  water  in  excess  at  the  surface  could  penetrate  into  these 
pipes.  Doubtless,  thought  I,  if  this  water  springs  up  at  a  single 
place  and  for  want  of  exit  spreads  over  the  whole  field,  it  is  an  easy 
matter  to  collect  it  through  waterworks  introduced  into  the  pipes 
and  let  it  run  off  at  a  lower  spot.  But  otherwise,  if  you  have  seve- 
ral springs  to  contend  with ;  if  the  excess  of  water  after  the  normal 
saturation  of  the  soil  is  produced  by  superabundant  rains  during 
several  years,  how,  once  more,  will  the  numerous  little  sources  pene- 
trate and  find  their  way  through  the  surface  of,  and  into  the  pipes  ? 
1  will  suppose  that  the  ends  of  the  pipes  are  only  contiguous,  that 
at  first  cracks  will  admit  water,  but  earth  will,  in  course  of  time, 
fill  up  the  joints ;  in  both  cases  the  work  will  be  expensive  and  use- 
less." 


DEFINITION.  O 

Such  doubts  expressed  by  a  very  learned  agriculturist, 
prove  that  much  has  yet  to  be  said  in  order  to  convince 
our  agriculturists  of  the  utility  of  drainage,  and  to  ren- 
der its  effe.cts  conspicuous  to  them.  On  the  other  hand, 
numberless  questions  are  addressed  to  us  about  the  man- 
ner of  making  pipes,  the  quality  of  clay,  the  kind  of  ma- 
chines, baking  or  burning,  cost,  results  to  be  expected, 
and  so  forth.  The  work  for  laying  the  drains  does  not  ap- 
pear, in  general,  difficult  to  comprehend  and  execute ;  the 
numerous  writings  on  the  subject  scattered  through  the 
agricultural  and  other  journals,  have  enlightened  the  ma- 
jority of  cultivators.  But  many  a  point  relating  to  the 
execution,  remains  unexplained;  we,  therefore,  have 
deemed  it  proper  to  go  over  the  whole  subject  without 
neglecting  that  which  practical  men  and  publications  have 
heretofore  elucidated. 

Notwithstanding  the  origin  of  drainage  may  often  have 
been  related,  a  sketch  of  its  history  and  progress  will  not 
be  out  of  place  here.  The  importance  of  drainage  is  the 
sole  point  of  the  subject,  which  rbally  should  not  require 
any  further  discussion;  it  was  prominently  brought  forward 
by  Mr.  Martinelli,  of  Nerac  (France),  at  a  county  fair,  in 
a  few  words,  which  we  translate  from  the  Journal  of 
Practical  Agriculture,  viz : 

"  Look  at  this  flower  pot.  What  is  the  hole  at  the  bottom  for  ?  j 
ask  you,  because  there  is  a  complete  agricultural  revolution  in  that 
hole.  It  affords  a  renovation  of  water  by  a  timely  flow.  And  why 
must  water  be  renovated?  Because  it  gives  either  life  or  death : 
life,  when  it  merely  traverses  a  layer  of  earth  which  retains  the  fe- 
cundity with  which  water  is  pregnant,  and  beside  dissolves  nutri- 
ments conveyed  to  the  plant;  death,  when  it  remains  in  the  pot,  be- 
cause it  will  soon  be  corrupted,  will  cause  the  roots  to  become  dis- 
eased and  prevent  admittance  to  new  water." 

The  drainage  of  tillable  land  is  a  small  hole  at  the  bot- 
tom, just  like  that  of  the  flower  pot. 


4  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

HISTORY  OF  DEAINAGE  AMONG  THE  ANCIENTS. 

THE  new  system  of  drainage  emphatically  consists  in 
the  use  of  covered  causeways ;  we,  therefore,  will  devote 
no  space  nor  time  to  the  discussion  of  open  trenches  as  a 
means  of  removing  superfluous  water  and  rendering  lands 
arable,  subject  to  this  condition.  The  idea  of  redeeming 
from  waste  and  of  making  available  for  cultivation  the 
surface  occupied  by  gaping  ditches,  may  be  traced  back  to 
the  earliest  ages.  The  Romans  were  acquainted  with  a 
process  of  draining  lands  derived,  doubtless,  from  ante- 
cedent civilization.  .Nevertheless,  among  agricultural 
writers,  Columella  is  the  first  who  speaks  of  underground 
causeways;  he  lived  in  the  reigns  of  Augustus  and  Tibe- 
rius. Cato,  Yarro,  arid  Yirgil,  advocate  open  trenches 
only.  Here  is  Columella's  text:1 

"  When  the  soil  is  moist,  ditches  are  to  be  dug  out  in  order  to  dry 
it  up  and  let  the  water  run  off.  We  know  of  two  kinds  of  ditches : 
those  which  are  hidden  and  those  which  are  wide  and  open ;  as  to 
the  hidden  ditches,  one  will  dig  out  trenches  of  three  feet  in  depth, 
which  shall  be  half  filled  with  small  pebbles  or  pure  gravel,  and  then 
the  whole  will  be  covered  with  the  earth  which  was  taken  out  from 
the  trench.  Should  there  be  neither  stones  nor  gravel,  then  fascines 
formed  of  branches  tied  together,  of  the  same  shape  and  capacity 
of  the  trench,  may  be  placed  into  it  so  as  to  fill  up  the  cavity.  When 
the  fascines  have  been  sunk  into  the  bottom  of  the  canal,  they  must 
be  covered  with  leaves  of  cypress,  pine,  or  any  other  tree,  then  shall 
be  superadded  the  earth  extracted  from  the  trench,  and  the  whole 
will  strongly  be  compressed.  At  both  ends  must  be  placed  in  the 
form  of  a  buttress  (as  it  is  done  for  small  bridges),  two  large  stones 
surmounted  with  a  third  one,  in  order  to  consolidate  the  sides  of  the 
ditch  and  favor  the  fall  and  exit  of  the  water." 

Palladius,  who  came  long  after  Columella,  thus  describes 
the  underground  causeways  : 2 

"  When  the  lands  arc  wet0  they  will  be  dried  up  by  digging  trenches 

iLib.  II,  cap.  2.  2  Lib.  VI,  cap.  3. 


DRAINAGE  AMONG  THE  ANCIENTS.  5 

everywhere.  Every  one  knows  how  to  make  open  trenches,  but 
here  is  the  way  to  make  hidden  trenches :  One  digs  out  across  the 
field  ditches  of  three  feet  in  depth,  which  are  to  be  half  filled  with 
small  stones  or  gravel ;  after  which  they  are  filled  up  with  the  earth 
from  the  digging  and  leveled.  But  the  ends  of  those  causeways  must 
lead  in  declivity  unto  an  open  ditch  whither  the  water  will  run  with- 
out carrying  away  the  earth  of  the  field.  Should  there  be  no  stones, 
one  will  lay  at  the  bottom  of  the  "^itch  fascines,  straw,  or  briars  of 
any  kind  whatever." 

Thus,  drainage,  by  means  of  underground  causeways 
through  which  the  flow  of  water  is  secured  by  means  of 
p.ermeable  materials,  like  stones  or  branches,  is  an  inven- 
tion that  no  modern  has  any  right  to  claim ;  though  drain- 
age, such  as  described  by  Columella  and  Palladius,  has 
long  been  used  at  numerous  places  in  France.  England 
endeavored  to  ascribe  to  Captain  Walter  Bligh  the  inven- 
tion of  deep  trenches.  Walter  Bligh's  only  merit  is  the 
reproduction  of  the  precepts  applied  before  him,  and  per- 
fectly elucidated  by  the  elder  French  writer  on  agriculture, 
Oliver  de  Serres. 

Even  in  Columella's  time,  the  importance  was  fully  ap- 
preciated of  making  the  drains  with  sloping  sides  and  nar- 
row bottom.  From  this  forward  there  was  a  slight  step 
only  to  actual  and  thorough  drainage.  There  is  abundant 
evidence  to  prove  that  the  ancient  Romans  used  clay  pipe 
as  conduits  for  water  everywhere  where  they  established 
themselves ;  that  even  in  lower  Austria,  Saxony,  and 
other  countries,  a  similar  system  of  conduit  by  clay  pipes 
obtained,  evidence  of  which  is  yet  to  be  found  in  some  of 
the  cultivated  fields ;  there  appears  to  be  presumptive 
evidence,  at  least,  that  drainage  by  clay  pipes  or  tiles  was 
a  Roman  invention. 


6  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

UNDERGROUND  CAUSEWAYS  AMONG  THE  GREEKS. 

We  said  that  the  Romans  were  acquainted  with  a  mode 
of  draining  lands  through  trenches  covered  and  filled  with 
stone.  We  did  not  derive  the  origin  of  it  from  more  an- 
cient civilization,  because  we  do  not  consider  the  subter- 
ranean canals  built  fry  the  Greeks  to  remove  enormous 
reservoirs  of  water,  which  might  have  caused  extensive 
floods,  as  mere  agricultural  drains.  M.  Jaubert  de  Passa, 
in  his  Researches  on  Irrigation  among  Ancient  Nations,1 
speaks  thus  : 

"Was  the  mysterious  outlet  of  the  lake  Stymphalide  toward  the 
coast  of  Argos 2  the  work  of  man  or  caprice  of  nature  ?  It  is  known 
that  the  water  of  the  lake  did  run  into  two  abysses  situated  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  valley;  when  these  openings  were  obstructed,  the  water 
covered  a  space  of  over  400  stadii,  or  about  thirty  miles.  The  river 
Styinphale,  which  the  inhabitants  of  Argolida  named  Erasinus,  was 
not  the  only  one  of  which  the  course  was  partly  under  ground.  The 
Alpheus,  after  having  several  times  disappeared  from  the  earth's 
surface,  plunged  into  the  sea,  according  to  traditions,3  in  order  to  go 
into  Sicily,  where  it  mingled  its  water  with  the  spring  of  Arethusa. 
The  plain  of  Orchomenes  became  marshy  as  soon  as  the  subterranean 
ducts,  regular  outlet  of  the  water  from  Mount  Trachys,  failed  to  be 
cleansed.  The  plain  of  Caphyes  was  sometimes  overflown  by  the 
water  of  the  Orchomenes.  Asa  permanent  protection  for  the  coun- 
try and  the  city,  the  magistrates  of  Caphyes  caused  the  establishment 
of  a  causeway  along  the  flowing  canal,  behind  which  water  from 
various  sources  formed  the  river  below.4 

"The  plain  of  Phenea,  next  to  the  others,  remained  for  a  long 
time  overflown.  At  a  remote,  but  unknown  epoch,  an  earthquake, 
according  t6  some,  a  beneficent  prince,  according  to  others,  opened 
two  abysses  or  zeretlira,  which  let  out  the  water  and  made  the  land 
healthy;  5  finally,  the  valley  of  Artemisium,  situate  near  Mantinca, 
and  named  Argos,  on  account  of  its  sterility,  became  marshy  as 

1  Vol.  IV,  p.  36.  SPausanias  VIII,  44,  54. 

2Strabo  VI,  cap.  3    g  9,  and  VIII,  enp.  9    £4.     4pausanias  VIII,  p.  23. 
5  Pausanias,  VIII,  p.  14,  19. 


UNDERGROUND   CAUSEWAYS.  7 

often  as  water  obstructed  the  gulf  which  was  its  outlet  This  sub- 
terranean duct  extended  as  far  as  Genethlium,  a  city  built  at  the 
head  of  the  lake  Dine."  l 

Certainly,  these  immense  underground  works  of  the 
Greeks  must  have  had  the  drainage  of  extensive  districts 
for  their  object,  but  they  were  undertaken  as  a  public 
hygiene,  and  not  to  enhance  the  fertility  of  arable  lands. 
Agricultural  drainage  has  this  last  as  its  special  object ; 
but  this  can  not  always  be  attained  without  some  general 
work  for  the  drainage  of  a  whole  valley. 

We  read,  in  Walter  Bligh's  book,  third  edition,  printed 
in  1652 :2 

"As  to  the  drain  trench,  thou  wilt  make  it  deep  enough  so  that  it 
may  reach  at  the  bottom  cold,  oozing,  stagnant  water.  Say  one 
yard,  or  four  feet,  if  thou  wishest  for  satisfactory  drain.  And  fur- 
thermore, having  come  to  the  layer  whereat  rests  the  oozing  spring, 
sink  further  down  about  the  depth  of  an  iron  shovel,  no  matter  how 
deep  thou  art  already,  if  thou  wilt  drain  thy  land  throughout.  . . .  But 
as  to  ordinary  trenches,  which  are  often  dug  out  one  or  two  feet,  I 
say  that  it  is  madness  and  lost  work,  and  I  will  spare  the  reader 
wherewithal." 

These  injunctions  certainly  are  pertinent,  and  may 
serve  as  a  guide  even  at  this  day;  but  one  ought  not  to 
conclude  from  them,  as  some  modern  writers  did,  that, 
as  no  French  agricultural  author  treated  the  subject  as 
a  specialty,  and  with  sufficient  details,  all  the  merit  of 
the  introduction  of  open  trenches  belongs  to  England. 
OLIVER  DE  SERRES,  who  lived  before  Walter  Bligh,  and 
whose  Theatre  of  Agriculture  was  printed  in  1600,  gives 
a  very  complete  description  of  the  underground  cause- 
ways, strongly  recommending  the  use  of  them.  Not  only 
does  he  consider  the  single  trench,  as  did  Columella,  but 


1  Pausanias  VIII,  p.  7,  20,  21,  25. 

2  "  The  English  Improver   Improved,  or  the  Survey  of  Husbandry  Sur- 
veyed." 


LAND    DRAINAGE. 

he  goes  further;  he  treats  of  many  together,  he  is  care- 
ful to  describe  the  main  ditch  as  also  covered,  and  every 
precaution  to  be  taken  in  order  to  secure  effective  drains. 
As,  Oliver  de  Serres  was  altogether  neglected  in  the  his- 
tory of  drainage,  and  his  well-defined  ideas  having  been 
attributed  to  divers  authors,  we  will  give,  in  extenso,  a 
passage  from  the  book  of  this  great  French  writer  on 
agriculture  : l 

"To  discharge  noxious  water,  the  usual  way  is  to  open  ditches, 
especially  through  plains  and  low  places,  these  ditches  becoming  in- 
closures  for  the  land.  Let  the  land  then  be  dug  around  and  give 
the  ditches  proper  width  and  depth,  to  fulfill  both  objects.  They 
raust  be  cleansed  every  second  year,  some  time  previous  to  sowing 
lands,  on  which  shall  be  cast  this  detritus  from  the  trenches,  to  be 
used  as  so  much  manure.  But,  should  it  happen  that  the  field  bo 
•full  of  springs,  or  underground  oozing  sources,  external  ditches  are 
no  longer  sufficient ;  then  will  be  required  another  and  more  pecu- 
liar  remedy  as  will  be  shown,  in  order  to  rid  inner  land  of  this  in- 
commodiousness.  Inasmuch  as  the  evil  of  too  much  water  exceeds 
in  destructiveness,  both  that  of  shadow  and  of  stones,  to  mend  the 
former  will  require  greater  labor  than  to  correct  the  latter ;  of  this, 
finally,  the  profit  as  a  recompense,  comes  out  greater  than  from  any 
other  reparation  that  can  be  given  to  the  land,  so  fruitful  is  that 
which  relieves  it  from  water;  because  thereby  not  only  are  wet 
lands  improved,  but  pools  and  swamps  are  converted  into  exquisite 
plow  fields. 

"The  examples  serve  us  as  good  masters  to  do  good  husbandry. 
Where  is  the  farmer  beholding  the  beautiful  wheat  raised  on  drained 
swamps,  that  does  not  desire,  in  emulation,  to  imitate  such  profit- 
able husbandry  ?  The  cause  of  this  comes  from  a  superabundance 
of  water,  which  prevented  land  from  being  worked  for  several  years; 
::t  the  end  of  which,  finding  itself  reposed,  and  thereby  to  have  ac- 
quired fertility,  returns  it  admirably  and  with  profit.  And  how  much 
more  hope  you  will  have  from  this,  which  by  the  ancient  subjection 
to  the  springs,  was  never  able  to  produce,  which  you  will  find  preg- 
nant with  fertility !  Beside  the  income,  there  is  no  doubt  that  from 
noxious  water  spread  here  and  there,  on  your  land,  when  collected 

i  Theatre  d'Agriculture,  Second  Lieu,  t.  1,  p.  97. 


UNDERGROUND   CAUSEWAYS.  9 

in  one  place,  you  could  make  a  fountain  spring  according  to  places, 
so  great  and  with  such  abundance  of  water,  that  it  will  suffice  for 
the  irrigation  of  meadows,  which  you  will  make  on  account  of  that, 
below  the  drained  pieces,  and  indeed  for  erecting  mills  there,  should 
the  ground  and  other  circumstances  requisite  be  favorable. 

"  The  ground  you  desire  to  drain  must  have  a  declivity,  either 
small  or  great,  without  which  the  water  could  not  run  off.  This  be- 
ing presupposed,  a  large  ditch  must  be  dug  from  one  end  to  the 
other,  always  beginning  at  the  lowest  spot;  into  that  trench  many 
others,  but  smaller,  may  be  joined  on  both  sides,  in  order  to  dis- 
charge the  water  flowing  from  all  parts  of  the  ground.  By  this 
means,  each  supplying  its  portion,  the  large  ditch  collecting,  the 
whole  will  be  discharged.  The  large  trench  is,  on  that  account, 
called  mother  trench,  and  the  whole  together,  'hens  paw,  from  the 
figure  of  that  animal's  foot,  whose  claws  stretch  in  toward  its 
trunk.  The  extent  and  surface  of  the  land  give  form  to  the 
ditches,  because  it  is  fit  to  make  them  longer  and  wider  in  propor- 
tion as  your  land  is  extensive  and  flat,  which  you  drain ;  and  on 
the  other  hand,  they  are  required  shorter  and  narrower,  if  it  be 
small  and  sloping;  because,  within  a  narrow  compass,  gene- 
rally, not  so  much  water  is  collected  as  in  a  large  one,  and  as  much, 
nay,  more  of  it  will  pour  out  of  a  narrow  ditch  with  great  declivity 
than  a  wide,  gently  sloping  trench.  About  the  depth  of  the  ditches, 
it  is  not  thus,  for,  in  whatever  part  you  dig.  you  must  go  about  four 
feet  deep,  in  order  to  cut  off  the  source  of  the  springs,  ichich  is  the 
special  aim  of  this  business.  According  to  the  nature  of  the  place, 
must  the  trenches  be  disposed. 

"  Should  there  be  a  low  vale,  with  high  ground  on  both  sides,  the 
mother  must  be  dug  in  the  middle  and  lower  spot,  lengthwise,  as  al- 
ready said,  into  which  must  fall  the  other  ditches  from  both  sides. 
But  having  to  drain  only  one  hillside,  in  that  quarter  there  will  be 
some  small  ditches  running  into  the  mother  trench,  and  disposed  as 
will  seem  fit  for  the  best  of  the  work  and  premises ;  as  also  the 
length  of  all  trenches  is  subordinate  to  the  plan  which  dictates  the 
order  of  them,  according  to  the  surface  and  site.  Having  the  plan, 
reasonable  fall  and  extent,  a  proper  width  will  also  be  required  for 
the  small  ditches ;  the  latter  should  be  three  feet,  and  the  mother 
five  feet  deep ;  by  means  of  this  guide,  your  intention  will  be  ful- 
filled. And  to  avoid  any  mistake,  let  there  be  as  many  ditches,  so 
long,  so  wide,  without  fear  of  excess  on  this  score,  that  no  source 


10  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

of  spring,  or  small  fountain,  be  overlooked,  in  order  to  drain  your 
land  well,  by  the  general  gathering  of  its  waters. 

"Those  ditches,  large  or  small,  must  be  half  filled  with  minute  stones 
and  the  other  half  with  the  earth  previously  dug  out  and  leveled  at  the 
top,  so  that  no  trace  of  it  even  will  appear,  for  the  commodiousness' 
of  tillage,  which  should  be  executed  very  well,  the  plow  finding 
depth  enough  of  earth  before  reaching  the  stones,  through  which 
water  will  freely  pass  and  flow  out  at  the  spot  designed  for  it,  leav- 
ing the  surface  land  free  of  all  noxious  moisture  and  lit  to  bring  forth 
all  kinds  of  cereals. 

"A  similar  work  must  be  applied  to  all  estates,  vineyards,  meadow?, 
orchards,  and  others  which  produce  no  fruit  on  account  of  too  much 
moisture.  If  you  have  on  the  spot  none  but  large,  flat  stones  for 
supplying  your  trenches,  before  using  them  you  must  break  them  to 
suit  this  kind  of  service,  and  they  should  be  placed  into  the  ditch 
straight  (upright)  and  not  flat,  fixing  them  beside  so  skillfully  that 
they  will  not  be  too  tight  to  prevent  the  flow  of  water.  To  have  this 
business  well  done,  begin  right,  that  is,  artistically  and  with  order ; 
through  ease  and  without  confusion  you  will  succeed  very  well.  It 
will  be  easy  to  draw  all  your  ditches,  by  cautiously  observing  the 
places  through  which  they  are  to  pass ;  then  you  begin  to  dig  them 
out  at  the  lowest  spots,  casting  the  earth  all  on  one  side  of  the  trench, 
leaving  the  other  side  free,  to  bring  thither  easily  the  stones,  which 
must  be  thrown  in  immediately,  for  fear  that,  by  delaying,  the  trench 
might  cave  in  by  effect  of  the  wind,  trampling  of  beasts,  or  any  other 
accident. 

"Thus  your  undertaking  shall  be  completed  at  one  end,  as  soon  as 
commenced,  in  prosecuting  it  until  you  reach  the  highest  spot  of  the 
field.  In  the  meanwhile  the  water  will  take  its  course  as  soon  as  the 
opening  of  its  way  has  been  performed,  which  could  not  take  place, 
should  you  begin  the  work  at  the  highest  spot,  for  want  of  issue  al- 
lowed to  water;  even  this  would  disturb  the  digging  by  discharging 
into  it.  You  will  mind,  also,  that  the  issues  of  water  be  well  man- 
aged, that  they  do  not  choke  up  afterward,  because  for  want  of  issue 
water  might  retrograde  and  render  your  labor  useless.  This  will  be 
obviated  by  stones  and  mortar,  put  up  by  a  master  hand,  so  as  to  last 
long,  especially  at  the  spot  where  the  main  or  mother  trench  lets  out 
the  water.  You  are  finally  advised  that  the  extremities  and  ends  of 
your  small  ditches,  at  their  highest  parts,  need  not  to  be  as  wide  as 
in  low  places,  not  being  compelled  to  collect  there  so  much  water  as 
below;  thfs,  nevertheless,  remains  at  your  discretion,  because  they 


UNDERGROUND   CAUSEWAYS.  11 

can  not  be  too  wide  in  any  place  in  order  to  receive  not  only  water 
springing  from  the  Bottom,  but  also  that  from  the  rain  above,  which 
shall  not  be  overlooked. 

"  This  work  produces  several  advantages,  since  at  the  same  time  an 
excess  of  water  and  stones  are  removed  from  the  ground,  and  that 
water  is  made  serviceable  for  meadows,  mills,  even  for  fountains,  the 
qualities  of  it  being  considered,  for  which  usefulness  it  is  rendered 
commendable ;  also,  that  improvement  ought  to  be  prosecuted  by  all 
husbandmen.  Beside,  nothing  is  lost  in  that  performance ;  because 
the  trenches  being  filled  up  to  their  superficies,  all  the  land  is  exposed 
and  fit  for  tillage,  even  to  an  inch;  that  can  not  be  said  when  trenches 
are  left  open,  which  occupy  much  ground,  and,  in  contradistinction 
to  the  others,  are  liable  to  need  repairs  from  time  to  time. 

"  Should  stone  for  replenishing  ditches  fail  on  the  spot,  do  not  have 
them  brought  from  afar,  at  great  expense,  but  instead  use  straw, 
which  you  may  employ  in  this  wise  : 

"  The  rye  straw,  on  account  of  its  strength,  can  be  used,  and  this 
failing,  replace  it  with  wheat  straw.  You  will  make  with  it  a  floor 
in  the  ditch,  in  order,  being  suspended,  to  cause  an  empty  space  below 
for  the  passage  of  the  water,  and  above  this  floor  you  will  put  two 
feet  of  earth.  The  empty  space  should  be  one  foot  high,  the  thick- 
ness of  the  floor  another  foot,  and  the  two  of  earth  will  make  four 
feet  depth  of  the  ditch.  These  ditches  must  be  only  two  feet  and  a 
half  wide,  narrower  by  six  inches  than  others,  for  the  subjection  of 
straw,  for  fear  of  choking  up  the  empty  space  below,  by  caving  in  on 
account  of  its  weight  the  earth  put  on  the  top.  The  mother  trench, 
recipient  of  water,  must  not  be  wider  than  the  others,  Considering 
the  difficulties  of  the  straw;  but  this  may  be  overcome  by  using  two 
mother  trenches,  or  only  one  so  deep  that  it  will  suffice  to  collect  all 
the  water  directed  to  it  The  straw  ought  to  be  arranged  into  bun- 
dles one  foot  thick  and  two  and  a  half  long,  tied  up  even  at  three 
equidistant  places. 

"  In  order  to  lay  these  bundles  as  they  ought  be,  you  will  make  the 
ditch  narrower  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top,  not  in  declivity  or  slope, 
but  perpendicular,  contracting  unto  square  at  the  place  whereon  the 
floor  is  to  be  laid,  to  rest  firm  and  secure  as  upon  walls.  The  con- 
traction at  each  side  must  be  six  inches ;  thus  the  lowest  place  of 
the  ditch  will  be  one  foot  and  a  half,  and  two  and  six  inches  at  the 
widest  part,  which  is  the  top.  Should  you  suspect  your  ditches  and 
drains  of  being  too  small,  the  remedy  is  not  to  widen  them,  consider- 
ing the  difficulties  of  the  straw,  but  it  consists  in  their  number;  for, 


12  LAND  DRAINAGE. 

as  already  said,  you  can  not  have  too  many  of  them,  and  you  never 
will  remove  too  much  water  from  a  swamp  or  marshy  ground.  Thus 
you  must  be  careful  to  dig  a  sufficient  number  of  them  and  so  well 
disposed,  that  they  may  discharge  the  ones  upon  the  others  by 
branches  connecting  them,  in  order  to  conduct  all  the  water  of  the 
field  into  the  mother  trench  and  empty  it  at  the  proper  place. 

"  Straw,  thus  employed,  will  last  a  long  time ;  for  it  is  admitted  that, 
being  inclosed  within  the  earth  and  without  the  effects  of  air,  straw 
remains  sound  over  a  hundred  years.  I  am  a  witness  that  some 
sound  straw  was  found  entire  in  the  midst  of  an  old,  ruined  house, 
and  the  wall  appeared  to  be  the  work  of  former  ages.  Therefore, 
use  it  without  scruple,  with  the  understanding  that  if  it  should  rot 
at  the  end  of  a  hundred  years,  those  who  will  come  then,  may  change 
it  if  they  have  a  mind  to." 

On  the  subject  of  the  straw  to  replenish  trenches,  as 
indicated  by  Oliver  de  Serres,  Victor  Yvart,  in  a  remark 
added  to  the  edition  of  the  works  of  the  illustrious  writer, 
and  published  by  the  Agricultural  Society  at  Paris,  A.  D. 
1804,  says : 

"  It  might  prove  safe  and  cheap,  in  the  above  case,  to  use  faggots 
made  of  small  alder  tree  branches,  which  keep  well  in  water,  and 
for  want  of  them,  other  branches,  which,  placed  at  the  bottom  allow, 
through  their  interstices,  free  exit  to  water,  and  afford  all  the  advan- 
tages of  straw,  without  its  drawbacks." 

From  the  above  important  quotation,  it  follows  that  the 
invention  of  underground  causeways  for  draining  tillable 
lands  can  not  be  claimed  by  an  English  author,  even  a 
Walter  Bligh  or  an  Elkington.  The  latter  was  a  Warwick- 
shire farmer,  gifted  with  an  observing  mind  and  great 
perseverance,  who,  toward  the  end  of  the  last  century, 
drained  wet  lands  and  wTas  so  successful  as  to  attract  the 
attention  of  the  parliament  and  to  obtain  very  many 
recompenses.  But  his  method  is  not  much  different  from 
Oliver  de  Serres'  stone  system.  Elkington's  process  does 
not  admit  of  mother  trenches,  in  order  to  lead  the  water 
out  of  the  fields  and  appropriate  it  for  divers  uses. 


DRAIN   PIPES.  13 

There  are  three  manners  of  disposing  of  the  water : 

1.  "Water  sinks  into  permeable,  inferior  layers,  through 
a  well  filled  with  stones. 

2.  Should  the  well  require  a  depth  of  more  than  thirteen 
feet,- its  office  is  supplied  by  boring  a  hole  with  a  rod,  until 
it  reaches  a  porous  strata. 

3.  Water  springs  up,  like  in  artesian  wells,  either  by 
means  of  shafts  or  wells  conveniently  situated,  and  then 
removed  through  discharging  pipes. 

This  method  named  Elkington's,  consisting  in  the  double 
contrivance  of  wells  and  underground  'ditches  combined, 
requires  special  dispositions,  according  to  the  configura- 
tion of  the  ground;  it  combines,  also,  drains  with  shafts 
and  artesian  wells. 


DRAIN  PIPES  USED  IN  FRANCE,  A.  D.  1620. 

THE  invention  of  drainage  pipes  has  always  been  con- 
ceded to  England.  Should  the  statement  contained  in 
the  following  letter  prove  to  be  beyond  controversy,  we 
ought  to  say,  the  English  have  shown  the  importance  of 
using  underground  pipes  to  drain  the  land,  but  this  inven- 
tion is  of  French  origin  : 

"SiR:  I  read  in  the  Journal  of  Practical  Agriculture  your  essay 
on  drainage  scarcely  begun,  and  already  full  of  interest;  it  foretells 
deep  attraction  when  it  treats  of  its  influence  on  crops,  manures,  etc. 

"In  the  conclusions  of  your  chapter  on  the  history  of  drainage,  a 
contrivance  known  to  antiquity,  you  show  three  degrees  in  the 
periods  of  progress  through  which  it  came  to  us. 

"  The  first,  its  origin,  perhaps,  was  the  practice  of  it  among  the 
Romans,  as  related  by  Columella  and  Pallaclius. 

"The  second,  in  which  our  priority  over  England  is  established, 
thanks  to  Oliver  de  Serres. 

"The  third,  in  which  you  abandon  the  whole  conquest  to  the  Eng- 
lish, because  they  substituted  tiles  and  pipes  for  other  materials. 


14  LAND  DRAINAGE. 

"  The  latter  period  is  indeed  capital ;  heretofore  it  was  darkness; 
now  it  is  a  science.  The  last  improvement  elevated  drainage  from 
the  rank  of  an  agricultural  drudgery  to  the  sphere  of  industry ; 
caused  men  of  genius  to  cluster  around ;  attracted  the  attention  of 
men  of  the  world  and  the  powerful  support  of  an  enlightened,  par- 
tial government. 

"  This  lucky  improvement,  this  starting  point,  I  may  say,  shall  not 
he  denied  by  me  to  the  English ;  it  would  be  in  bad  taste  to  claim 
glory  for  an  invention,  when  we  failed  to  make  it  fruitful.  1  will 
only  state  that  the  same  idea  of  this  improvement  was  realized  in 
1G20,  about  the  time  when  Oliver  de  Serres  published  his  works. 

"  Within  the  town  of  Maubeuge,  in  my  own  neighborhood,  was  a 
convent  of  monks ;  the  epoch  of  its  erection  could  easily  be  ascer- 
tained ;  its  chapel  is  still  a  pure  specimen  of  gothic  style.  The  convent 
did  not  escape  the  republic  of  1793,  and  the  aspect  and  inmates  have 
changed,  but  its  wide  and  splendid  garden  was  respected.  Was  it 
on  account  of  its  reputation  ?  It  is  well  known  that,  from  immemo- 
rial time,  it  was  renowned  for  its  fertility,  the  beauty  and  earliness 
of  its  fruit  and  for  the  friability  of  its  soil. 

"  The  estate  was  sold,  and  last  year  the  premises  underwent  re- 
pairs: the  prolific  garden  wras  turned  into  pleasure  ground,  park 
with  fountains,  driving  causeways,  artificial  elevations  of  ground, 
and  so  forth.  This  overturning  disclosed  the  secret  of  its  marvel- 
ous reputation. 

"Two  complete  and  regular  pipe  drains  extended  throughout  the 
whole  garden,  at  the  depth  of  four  feet. 

"  One  of  the  drains  had  all  its  pipes  radiating  to  a  sinking  wrell 
situate  in  a  central  position  ;  the  other  was  made  of  pipes  all  paral- 
lel, ending  at  a  collecting  pipe  which  discharged  into  a  cellar. 

"  The  owner  had  the  kindness  to  give  me  two  pipes  as  specimens 
of  curiosity;  they  are  about  ten  inches  long  and  four  inches  in  diame- 
ter; one  end  expands  into  a  funnel-shape,  the  other  tapers  into  a 
cone  ;  they  are  made  of  an  argilo-silicious  composition  like  most  of 
our  earthenware,  which  is  very  hard  and  becomes  very  much  glazed 
in  burning,  thereby  becoming  unalterable;  all  were  found  wrell  pre- 
served ;  they  were  evidently  made  by  hand  and  lathe. 

"  When  was  the  drain  constructed  ?  No  particular  data  is  given. 
MSS.  left  by  the  monks  might  solve  the  question  ;  at  any  rate,  some 
tombs,  placed  over  the  drain  in  1620,  show  it  to  be  anterior;  here, 


DRAINAGE   IN   ENGLAND.  15 

then,  is  an  ancient  drainage,  made  with  masterly  hands  three  hun- 
dred and  forty  years  ago,  which,  in  its  dimensions,  system,  and  ma- 
terials, is  much  like  those  of  the  present  day. 

"  To  vouch  for  the  truthfulness 
of  the  facts,  it  remains  for  me  to 
state  that  the  particulars  were  given 
to  me  by  Hon.  March  ant,  senator, 

(Fig.  1.    Pipe  Drains  of  1G20,  found  at  /,,  ,  ,      ,  . 

Maubeuge,  France.]  owner  ot  the  estate,  and  by  his  son- 

in-liuv,  my  brother,  a  distinguished  agriculturist,  who  was  present 
when  the  excavations  were  made. 

G.  HAMOIR,  Member  of  the  Ag.  Soc." 


Having  shown,  at  considerable  length,  the  origin  of 
drainage  in  France,  it  may  be  well  to  devote  a  few  pages 
to  the  introduction  of  this  improvement  into  England. 

The  first  work  published  on  the  subject  by  an  English 
author,  Capt.  AY  alter  Bligh,  already  referred  to.  His 
work,  the  ENGLISH  IMPROVER  IMPROVED,  or,  The  Survey 
of  Husbandry  Surveyed,  was  published  in  1650.  The 
principles  of  drainage  advocated  by  Capt.  Bligh,  are  thus 
expressed  by  Josiah  Parkes,  an  eminent  practical  drainer 
in  England,  in  the  7th  vol.  of  the  Journal  of  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society: 

"  In  his  instructions  for  forming  the  flooding  and  draining  trenches 
of  water-meadows,  the  author  says  of  the  latter :  'And  for  thy  drayn- 
ing  trench,  it  must  be  made  so  deep,  that  it  goe  to  the  bottom  of  the 
cold  spewing  moyst  water,  that  feeds  the  flagg  and  the  rush ;  for  the 
widenesse  of  it,  use  thine  own  liberty,  but  be  sure  to  make  it  so 
wide  as  thou  mayest  goe  to  the  bottom  of  it,  which  must  be  so  low 
as  any  moysture  lyeth,  which  moysture  usually  lyeth  under  the  over 
and  second  swarth  of  the  earth,  in  some  gravel  or  sand,  or  else, 
where  some  greater  stones  are  mixt-with  clay,  under  which  thou 
must  goe  half  one  spade's  graft  deep  at  least.  Yea,  suppose  this 
corruption  that  feeds  and  nourisheth  the  rush  or  flagg,  should  lie  a 
yard  or  four-foot  deepe ;  to  the  bottom  of  it  thou  must  goe,  if  ever 
thou  wilt  drayn  it  to  purpose,  or  make  the  utmost  advantage  of 
either  floating  or  drayning,  without  which  the  water  can  not  have 


16  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

its  kindly  operation ;  for  though  the  water  fatten  naturally,  yet  still 
this  coldnesse  and  moysture  lies  gnawing  within,  and  not  being 
taken  clean  away,  it  eates  out  what  the  water  fattens ;  and  so  the 
goodnesse  of  the  water  is,  as  it  were,  riddled,  screened,  and  strained 
out  into  the  land,  leaving  the  richnesse  and  the  leannesse  sliding  away 
from  it.'  In  another  place,  he  replies  to  the  objectors  of  floating, 
that  it  will  breed  the  rush,  the  flagg,  and  mare-blab;  'only  make 
thy  drayning-trenches  deep  enough,  and  not  too  far  off  thy  floating 
course,  and  1'le  warrant  it  they  drayn  away  that  under-moysture, 
fylth,  and  venom  as  aforesaid,  that  maintains  them ;  and  then  be- 
lieve me,  or  deny  Scripture,  which  I  hope  thou  doust  not,  as  Bildad 
said  unto  Job,  '  Can  the  rush  grow  without  mire,  or  the  flagg  with- 
out water?'  Job  viii,  11.  That  interrogation  plainly  showes  that 
the  rush  can  not  grow,  the  water  being  taken  from  the  root;  for  it  is 
not  the  moystenesse  upon  the  surface  of  the  land,  for  then  every 
shower  should  increase  the  rush,  but  it  is  that  which  lyeth  at  the 
root,  which,  drayned  away  at  the  bottom,  leaves  it  naked  and  barren 
of  relief.' 

"  The  author  frequently  returns  to  this  charge,  explaining  over  and 
over  again,  the  necessity  of  removing  what  Ave  call  bottom-water,  and 
which  he  well  designates  as  '  filth  and  venom.' 

"  In  the  course  of  my  operations  as  a  drainer,  I  have  met  with,  or 
heard  of  so  many  instances  of  swamp-drainage,  executed  precisely 
according  to  the  plans  of  this  author,  and  sometimes  in  a  superior 
manner — the  conduits  being  formed  of  walling  stone,  at  a  period 
long  antecedent  to  the  memory  of  the  living — that  I  am  disposed  to 
consider  the  practice  of  deep  drainage  to  have  originated  with  Capt. 
Bligh,  and  to  have  been  preserved  by  imitators  in  various  parts  of 
the  country ;  since  a  book,  which  passed  through  three  editions  in 
the  time  of  the  Commonwealth,  must  necessarily  have  had  an  ex- 
tensive circulation,  and  enjoyed  a  high  renown.  Several  compli- 
mentary autograph  verses,  written  by  some  imitators  and  admirers 
of  the  ingenious  Bligh,  are  bound  up  with  the  volume.  I  find,  also, 
not  unfrequently,  very  ancient  deep  drains  in  arable  fields,  and  some 
of  them  still  in  good  condition;  and  in  a  case  or  two,  1  have  met 
with  several  ancient  drains  six  feet  deep,  placed  parallel  with  each 
other,  but  at  so  great  a  distance  asunder,  us  not  to  have  commanded 
a  perfect  drainage  of  the  intermediate  space.  The  author  from 
whom  I  have  so  largely  quoted,  is  the  earliest  known  to  me,  who  has 
had  the  sagacity  to  distinguish  between  the  transient  effect  of  rain, 


DRAINAGE   IN  ENGLAND.  17 

and  the  constant  action  of  stagnant  bottom  water  in  maintaining 
land  in  a  wet  condition." 

The  next  important  step  in  the  progress  of  drain- 
age in  England,  was  by  Joseph  Elkington,  an  illiterate 
Warwickshire  Farmer ;  but  a  man  who  undoubtedly  pos- 
sessed more  than  ordinary  ability,  if  not  absolute  genius. 
His  discovery  and  subsequent  practice  created  such  a 
sensation  throughout  England  and  Scotland,  but  more  es- 
pecially in  the  agricultural  circles,  that  at  the  solicitation 
of  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  Parliament  in  1795,  voted 
him  £1,000,  as  a  reward  for  his  discovery  in  the  drainage 
of  land. 

Elkington  being  incapable  of  writing  out  his  discovery 
and  system  of  drainage,  so  that  others  might  be  benefited 
by  such  a  work,  the  Board  of  Agriculture  appointed  a 
Mr.  John  Johnstone  to  visit  Elkington's  principal  works, 
and  study  them  carefully,  and  record  it  for  the  benefit  of 
others.  Mr.  Johnstone  accordingly  studied  the  Elking- 
ton system  of  drainage,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  it.  Re- 
cent writers  charge  Mr.  Johnstone  with  giving  his  own 
opinions  in  many  instances,  rather  than  those  of  Mr.  Elk- 
ington. 

He  gives  the  following  statement  of  Elkington's  dis- 
covery : 

uln  the  year  1763,  Elkington  was  left  by  his  father  in  the  posses- 
sion of  a  farm  called  Prince-Thorp,  in  the  parish  of  Stretton-upon- 
Dunsmore,  and  county  of  Warwick.  The  soil  of  this  farm  was  so 
poor,  and,  in  many  places,  so  extremely  wet,  that  it  was  the  cause 
of  rotting  several  hundreds  of  his  sheep,  which  first  induced  him, 
if  possible,  to  drain  it  This  he  begun  to  do,  in  1764,  in  a  field  of 
wet  clay  soil,  rendered  almost  a  swamp,  or  shaking  bog,  by  the 
springs  which  issued  from  an  adjoining  bank  of  gravel  and  sand, 
and  overflowed  the  surface  of  the  ground  below.  To  drain  this 
field,  which  was  of  considerable  extent,  he  cut  a  trench  about  four 
or  five  feet  deep,  a  little  below  the  upper  side  of  the  bog,  vrhere  the 
wetness  began  to  make  its  appearance ;  and,  after  proceeding  with 
3 


18  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

it  in  this  direction  and  at  this  depth,  he  found  it  did  not  reach  the 
principal  body  of  subjacent  water  from  which  the  evil  arose.  On 
perceiving  this,  he  was  at  a  loss  how  to  proceed,  when  one  of  his 
servants  came  to  the  field  with  an  iron  crow,  or  bar,  for  the  purpose 
of  making  holes  for  fixing  sheep  hurdles  in  an  adjoining  part  of  the 
farm,  as  represented  on  the  plan.  Having  a  suspicion  that  his  drain 
was  not  deep  enough,  and  desirous  to  know  what  strata  lay  under  it, 
he  took  the  iron  bar,  and  having  forced  it  down  about  four  feet  be- 
low the  bottom  of  the  trench,  on  pulling  it  out,  to  his  astonishment, 
a  great  quantity  of  water  burst  up  through  the  hole  he  had  thus 
made,  and  ran  along  the  drain.  This  led  him  to  the  knowledge,  that 
wetness  may  be  often  produced  by  water  confined  farther  below  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  than  it  was  possible  for  the  usual  depth  of 
drains  to  reach,  and  that  an  avger  would  be  a  useful  instrument  to 
apply  in  such  cases.  Thus,  chance  was  the  parent  of  this  discovery, 
as  she  oftens  is  of  other  useful  arts ;  and  fortunate  it  is  for  society, 
when  such  accidents  happen  to  those  who  have  sense  and  judgment 
to  avail  themselves  of  hints  thus  fortuitously  given.  In  this  manner 
he  soon  accomplished  the  drainage  of  his  whole  farm,  and  rendered 
it  so  perfectly  dry  and  sound,  that  none  of  his  flock  was  ever  after 
affected  with  disease. 

"By  the  success  of  this  experiment,  Mr.  Elkington's  fame,  as  a 
drainer,  was  quickly  and  widely  extended;  and,  after  having  suc- 
cessfully drained  several  farms  in  his  neighborhood,  he  was,  at  last, 
very  generally  employed  for  that  purpose,  in  various  parts  of  the 
kingdom,  till  about  thirty  years  ago,  when  the  country  had  the  mel- 
ancholy cause  to  regret  his  loss.  From  his  long  practice  and  experi- 
ence, he  became  so  successful  in  the  works  he  undertook,  and  so 
skillful  in  judging  of  the  internal  strata  of  the  earth,  and  the  nature 
of  springs,  that,  with  remarkable  precision,  he  could  ascertain  where 
to  find  water,  and  trace  the  course  of  springs  that  made  no  appear- 
ance on  the  surface  of  the  ground.  During  his  practice  of  more 
than  thirty  years,  he  drained  in  various  parts  in  England,  particu- 
larly in  the  midland  counties,  many  thousand  acres  of  land,  which, 
from  being  originally  of  little  or  no  value,  soon  became  as  useful  as 
any  in  the  kingdom,  by  producing  the  most  valuable  kinds  of  grain, 
and  feeding  the  best  and  healthiest  species  of  stock. 

"  Many  have  erroneously  entertained  an  idea  that  Elkington's 
skill  lay  solely  in  applying  the  auger  for  the  tapping  of  springs,  with- 
out attaching  any  merit  to  his  method  of  conducting  the  drains. 
The  accidental  circumstance  above  stated,  gave  him  the  first  notion 


DRAINAGE   IN   ENGLAND.  19 

of  using  an  auger,  and  directed  his  attention  to  the  profession  and 
practice  of  draining,  in  the  course  of  which  he  made  various  useful 
discoveries,  as  will  be  afterward  explained.  With  regard  to  the  use 
of  the  auger,  though  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  he  was  led 
to  employ  that  instrument  from  the  circumstance  already  stated,  and 
did  not  derive  it  from  any  other  source  of  intelligence,  yet  there 
is  no  doubt  that  others  might  have  hit  upon  the  same  idea  without 
being  indebted  for  it  to  him.  It  has  happened,  that,  in  attempts  to 
discover  mines  by  boring,  springs  have  been  tapped,  and  ground 
thereby  drained,  either  by  letting  the  water  down,  or  by  giving  it 
vent  to  the  surface ;  and  that  the  auger  has  been  likewise  used  in 
bringing  up  water  in  wells,  to  save  the  expense  of  deeper  digging ; 
but  that  it  had  been  used  in  draining  land,  before  Mr.  Elkington 
made  that  discovery,  no  one  has  ventured  to  assert.'1 

Johnstone  sums  up  this  system  as  follows : 

"  Draining,  according  to  Elkington' s  principles,  depends  chiefly 
upon  three  things : 

"  1.  Upon  discovering  the  main  spring  or  source  of  the  evil. 

"2.  Upon  taking  the  subterraneous  bearings  ;  and, 

"  3.  By  making  use  of  the  auger  to  reach  and  tap  the  springs, 
when  the  depth  of  the  drain  is  not  sufficient  for  that  purpose. 

"  The  first  thing,  therefore,  to  be  observed  is,  by  examining  the 
adjoining  high  grounds,  to  discover  what  strata  they  are  composed 
of;  and  then  to  ascertain,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  inclination  of 
these  strata,  and  their  connection  with  the  ground  to  be  drained, 
and  thereby  to  judge  at  what  place  the  level  of  the  spring  comes 
nearest  to  where  the  water  can  be  cut  off,  and  most  readily  dis- 
charged. The  surest  way  of  ascertaining  the  lay  or  inclination  of 
the  different  strata,  is,  by  examining  the  bed  of  the  nearest  streams, 
and  the  edges  of  the  banks  that  are  cut  through  by  the  water,  and 
any  pits,  wells,  or  quarries  that  may  be  in  the  neighborhood.  After 
the  main  springh&s  been  thus  discovered,  the  next  thing  is  to  ascer- 
tain a  line  on  the  same  level,  to  one  or  both  sides  of  it,  in  which  the 
drain  may  be  conducted,  which  is  one  of  the  most  important  parts 
of  the  operation,  and  one  on  which  the  art  of  draining  in  a  scientific 
manner  essentially  depends. 

"  L'astly,  the  use  of  the  auger,  which,  in  many  cases,  is  the  sine 
qua  non  of  the  business,  is  to  reach  and  tap  the  spring  when  the 
depth  of  the  drain  does  not  reach  it;  where  the  level  of  the  outlet 
will  not  admit  of  its  being  cut  to  a  greater  depth ;  and  where  the 


20  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

expense  of  such  cutting  would  be  great,  and    the  execution  of  it 
difficult. 

"  According  to  these  principles,  this  system  of  draining  has  been 
attended  with  extraordinary  consequences,  not  only  in  laying  the 
land  dry  in  the  vicinity  of  the  drain,  but  also  springs,  wells,  and 
wet  ground,  at  a  considerable  distance,  with  which  there  was  no 
apparent  connection." 

About  the  year  1810,  it  was  deemed  advisable  to  change 
the  former  system  of  draining.  Flat  and  hollow  tiles 
were  at  first  adopted.  Tile  drainage  appears  to  have  been 
put  in  practice,  for  the  first  time,  at  Netherby,  in  North- 
umberland, upon  the  estate  of  Sir  James  Graham.  "A 
tile  and  sole,  with  a  few  inches  of  stone,  is  the  ne  J??MS 
ultra  of  draining  :"  thus  reads  the  Journal  of  the  Society 
of  Agriculture  of  England,  vol.  II,  p.  293.  It  seems  that 
for  a  period  of  thirty  years,  there  appeared  no  possibility 
of  improving  on  the  method  invented  in  1810. 

But  it  remained  for  the  agriculturists  of  the  nineteenth 
century  to  establish  a  system  of  drainage  in  accordance 
with  scientific  principles  —  to  make  it  more  general  in  its 
application ;  to  provide  apparatus  and  machinery  for  the 
more  precise  and  uniform  construction  of  the  drains,  as 
well  as  the  tile ;  and  the  entire  art  has  been  so  much  im- 
proved that  all  previous  experiments  and  systems  vanish 
into  almost  nothingness  in  comparison. 

The  ancient  mode  of  draining,  successful  as  it  may  have 
been,  yet  inefficient  as  it  certainly  was,  subjected  those  who 
practiced  it  to  many  inconveniences,  while  itself  was  sub- 
ject to  many  liabilities  from  which  the  modern  or  English 
system  of  tile  draining  is  exempt.  Not  only  was  that  sys- 
tem attended  with  many  inconveniences  in  construction, 
for  want  of  proper  materials,  but  even  when  constructed 
was  liable  to  become  deranged  in  a  comparatively  short 
period  of  time,  and  to  repair  them  was  attended  with  not 
only  great  expenditure,  but  great  inconvenience  and  labor. 


DRAINAGE   IN   ENGLAND.  21 

Beside,  these  drains,  made  of  wood,  stone,  etc.,  served  for 
the  single  purpose  of  draining  the  springs  and  stagnant 
surface  water  only,  while  the  modern  ones,  made  of  tile,  not 
only  serve  this  same  purpose,  but  also  accomplish  some 
other  advantageous  results. 

It  soon  became  manifest  that  these  wooden  and  stone 
drains  were  sadly  deficient  in  permanency,  and  great  pains 
were  taken  to  substitute  something  better.  It  was  some- 
what of  an  improvement  when  the  plan  was  adopted  of  dig- 
ging a  canal  or  ditch,  and  covering  the  bottom  with  brick, 
and  then  placing  on  these  brick,  to  the  thickness  of  a  foot 
or  more,  large-sized  pebbles  or  brickbats.  These  drains 
proved  more  durable  and  less  liable  to  become  deranged 
than  the  previous  ones,  and  while  they  drained  a  given 
quantity  of  water  in  less  time,  they  accomplished  that  one 
object  only. 

This  system  was  in  turn  abandoned,  and  a  wooden  pipe, 
or  boards  forming  a  kind  of  covered  triangular  trough,  was 
substituted.  When  these  troughs  were  fitted  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  drain,  the  drain  itself  was  then  closed  with  turf, 
sod  or  earth.  But  this  system  was  found  to  be  very  ex- 
pensive, and  accomplished  the  one  object  only,  viz  :  drain- 
ing the  surface  water  and  the  spring  water,  and  this  very 
imperfectly. 

Another  great  error  was  committed  with  this  system, 
namely,  the  ditches  were  made  so  shallow  that  even  when 
plowing  with  their,  shallow  plows,  the  conduit  was  dis- 
turbed. The  result  was  that  when  the  winters  were  se- 
vere, the  drains  were  frozen  up,  and  were,  in  consequence, 
not  only  worthless,  but  an  actual  damage,  because  the  soil 
underwent  all  the  phenomena  that  it  does  in  winter — kill- 
ing wheat;  and  it  was  late  in  the  spring  before  they  were 
in  a  serviceable  condition.  Hence,  at  the  season  when 
they  should  have  been  of  the  utmost  importance,  they 


22  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

were  entirely  useless,  because  at  that  season  there  is  not 
only  the  most  water  in  the  soil,  but  it  is  also  a  period  when 
the  water  produces  the  most  injurious  results  to  the  grow- 
ing plants. 

Mr.  Baxter,  an  Englishman,  was  perhaps  the  first  one 
to  indicate  the  disadvantages  arising  from  shallow  drains. 
He  describes  the  results  as  follows : 

"In  the  year  1819,  I  drained  an  eight  acre  field  according  to  the 
old  system.  The  pipes  were  laid  from  twenty  to  twenty-four  inches 
beneath  the  surface,  and  twenty-eight  feet  apart.  I  soon  became 
convinced  that  very  little  benefit  would  accrue  from  this  system. 
The  crops  were  no  better  than  before  the  piece  was  drained — the 
tilth  no  better  or  easier,  in  spite  of  the  best  manures  which  I  could 
procure.  These  drains  were  filled  with  stone,  and  covered  with  turf; 
but,  being  compelled  to  bring  the  stone  some  distance,  it  made  the 
drains  very  expensive.  In  1832,  I  redrained  the  same  field  accord- 
ing to  the  new  system;  that  is,  I  made  the  drains  three  feet  deep  at 
parallel  distances  of  thirty-two  feet.  The  advantages  of  this  system 
were  at  once  apparent.  The  soil  was  sufficiently  dry  for  purposes  of 
cultivation  much  sooner  than  that  not  underdrained;  the  water  fur- 
rows disappeared,  and  with  them,  the  expense  of  keeping  the  field 
clean  after  seeding.  No  more  manures  of  any  kind  \vere  applied, 
and  yet  the  product  was  fully  one  third  more  than  previous  to  under- 
draining.  Since  I  have  commenced  deep  or  thorough  draining,  all 
my  crops  yield  fully  one  third  more.  By  deep  draining,  the  water 
can  at  once  flow  unhindered  from  the  field,  and  the  soil  is  conse- 
quently in  a  condition  to  be  worked  at  a  much  earlier  date  after  a 
rain  than  that  which  is  not  underdrained.  A  given  underdrained  field 
will  sustain  more  cattle  in  a  good  condition  than  one  which  has  not 
been  so  treated.  Then,  the  crop,  too,  will  ripen  earlier,  and  the  la- 
bor, in  clay  soil,  is  lightened  fully  one  fifth  for  cattle  or  horses, 
while  the  soil  itself  is  rendered  in  much  better  condition.  The  cli- 
mate even  is  improved  everywhere  where  deep  draining  is  practiced. 
It  is  the  most  effective  means  of  radically  removing  miasma  that  can 
be  introduced." 

The  great  advantages  consequent  upon  deep  draining 
were  then  made  -manifest  by  actual  experiment  twenty-five 
years  ago.  About  the  same  time,  another  very  important 


DRAINAGE   IN   ENGLAND.  23 

invention  was  introduced,  namely,  the  clay  pipe,  or  drain- 
ing tiles.  The  credit  of  this  most  important  discovery  is 
due  to  Mr.  Smith,  of  Deanston,  in  Scotland.  A  distin- 
guished mechanic  and  director  of  a  cotton  factory,  Mr. 
Smith,  wondering  at  the  infertility  of  a  piece  of  ground 
contiguous  to  that  factory,  after  a  minute  observation, 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  an  excess  of  moisture  was  the 
cause  of  it,  and  without  any  knowledge  of  what  had  either 
been  written  or  done  by  former  agriculturists,  it  occurred 
to  him  that  covered  drains  would  answer  an  excellent  pur- 
pose to  drain  tillable  lands.  His  success  was  great,  and 
much  talked  of  in  the  neighborhood.  In  1833,  he  pub- 
lished a  pamphlet  under  the  title  of  Smith's  Remarks  on 
thorough  Draining ;  and  although  he  was  not  the  first  in- 
ventor of  this  method,  he  rendered  to  England  and  Scot- 
land the  service  of  introducing  his  method  of  drainage, 
which  greatly  increased  the  fertility  of  British  lands.  "We 
must  acknowledge,  in  honor  to  that  country,  that  land 
owners  and  the  government  acted  in  this  case  with  more 
promptitude  than  is  usual  with  them.  Even  Sir  Robert 
Peel,  in  1840,  had  part  of  his  estate  at  Drayton,  Stafford- 
shire, drained  by  Mr.  Smith. 

This  new  art  of  draining  swept  like  a  wildfire  over 
Great  Britain,  and  drainage  soon  became  more  and  more 
general  in  England  and  Scotland.  The  great  importance 
of  this  system  of  draining  was  not  only  acknowledged  and 
advocated  by  the  agriculturists  of  England,  but  the  gov- 
ernment gave  the  most  substantial  testimonials  of  its  con- 
fidence in  the  system  as  an  augmenter  of  products.  A 
fund  of  two  million  pounds  sterling,  equal  to  ten  millions 
of  dollars,  was  appropriated  as  a  fund  to  be  loaned  to 
farmers,  to  be  expended  in  drainage — six  and  a  half  per 
cent,  of  the  loan  to  be  annually  refunded,  but  at  the  expi- 


24  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

ration  of  twenty-two  years,  the  entire  fund  to  be  extin- 
guished. 

Not  only  landlords  drained  their  lands,  but  the  tenants 
even,  when  their  lease  expired  at  the  end  of  six  years, 
drained  the  land  they  cultivated  with  advantage  and  profit 
to  themselves.  In  consequence  of  the  great  advantages 
arising  from  drainage  in  England,  a  law  was  enacted  reg- 
ulating the  amount  to  be  allowed  tenants  for  draining  the 
landlord's  farm,  also,  a  law  fixing  the  increased  value  of 
farms  which  are  underdrained,  for  purposes  of  hypotheca- 
tion, etc. 

Tiles  were  at  first  made  by  hand.  English  inventive 
genius  was  not  long  in  forwarding  this  industry.  As  drain- 
age spread,  machines  came  in  demand  to  supersede  manual 
labor.  The  first  one,  turning  out  flat  and  hollow  tiles  at 
once,  was  made  by  Irving,  during  the  year  1842.1  Imme- 
diately after  this,  the  Marquis  of  Tweeddale,  Mr.  Ransome, 
then  Mr.  Etheredge,  invented  other  machinery  for  the 
same  purpose.2  But,  to  manufacture  subterranean  pipes 
in  two  pieces  was  evidently  useless  complication.  Mr. 
John  Read  was  then  happily  inspired  with  the  idea  of  sub- 
stituting cylindrical  pipes  for  tiles.  Therefore,  this  man- 
ufacturer added  to  the  ancient  process  of  drainage,  the 
last  improvement  which  it  has  attained.  The  first  ma- 
chinery of  this  kind  was  exhibited  in  1843,  at  the  Derby 
Agricultural  Fair.  It  won  premiums  of  silver  medals,  and 
was  the  object  of  minute  and  encomiastic  descriptions  by 
Josiah  Parkes,  who  was  struck  with  its  importance.  Since 
that  time,  every  year  ushers  in  new  improvements  on  its 
construction. 

Elkington's  attention  was  specially  directed  to  springs, 
and  the  merit  of  his  system  consisted  of  relieving  the 

Uournal  of  the  lloyaf  Society  of  Agriculture,  Vol.  IV,  p.  370  (1843). 
2  Journal  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Agriculture,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  398. 


DRAINAGE   IN   ENGLAND.  25 

arable  soil  from  the  effects  of  water  issuing  from  below  up- 
ward. Now,  it  is  well  known  that,  in  many  places  as 
much  injury  is  done  to  crops  by  the  retention  of  rain  water 
in  the  soil  as  from  springs.  In  cases  where  the  soil  re- 
tained the  rains,  fields  could  not  be  drained  by  an  auger 
hole  and  a  ditch  or  two. 

Smith,  of  Deanston's  system  consisted  in  cutting  paral- 
lel drains  at  regular  intervals  over  the  entire  field,  without 
regard  to  springs  or  other  sources  of  subterranean  moist- 
ure. His  characteristic  views  were,  in  brief,  as  follows : 

"  1.  Frequent  drains  at  intervals  of  from  ten  to  twenty-four  feet. 

"  2.  Shallow  depth — not  exceeding  thirty  inches — designed  for 
the  single  purpose  of  freeing  that  depth  of  soil  from  stagnant  and 
injurious  water. 

"  3.  '  Parallel  drains,  at  regular  distances,  carried  throughout  the 
whole  field,  without  reference  to  the  wet  and  dry  appearance  of  por- 
tions of  the  field,'  in  order  '  to  provide  frequent  opportunities  for  the 
water  rising  from  below  and  falling  on  the  surface,  to  pass  freely 
and  completely  off.' 

"4.  Direction  of  the  minor  drains  'down  the  steep,'  and  that  of 
the  mains  along  the  bottom  of  the  chief  hollow — tributary  mains  be- 
ing provided  for  the  lesser  hollows.  The  reason  assigned  for  the 
minor  drains  following  the  line  of  steepest  descent,  was,  that  '  the 
stratification  generally  lies  in  sheets,  at  an  angle  to  the  surface.' 

"  5.  As  to  material — Stones  preferred  to  tiles  and  pipes." 

From  1833  to  1854,  several  systems  of  drainage  were 
advocated  throughout  Great  Britain.  All,  however,  agreed 
that  "  tile "  was  the  best  material  for  a  conduit  for  the 
water ;  but  these  systems  differed  from  each  other  in  the 
distance  between  as  well  as  the  depth  of  the  drains.  The 
merit  of  each  of  these  systems  will  be  discussed  in  the 
practical  portion  of  this  treatise. 

Drainage  was  readily  introduced  into  Belgium  and  Ger- 
many, where  it  produced  as  happy  results  as  in  England 
The  governments  of  these  respective  countries  cheerfully 
extentei  to  the  system  all  the  encouragement  which  coulu 


26  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

reasonably  be  expected.  To  such  an  extent  did  these 
governments  manifest  their  appreciation  of  the  system, 
that  they  actually  purchased  tile  machines,  manufactured 
tile,  and  established  depots  for  the  sale  of  them  at  low 
rates,  so  as  to  place  them  within  the  reach  of  almost  all 
tenants  and  landholders.  The  impulse  thus  given  by 
government  itself  soon  produced  the  happiest  results. 
Experiments  conducted  here  and  there,  at  the  instance  of 
the  government,  convinced  even  the  most  skeptical  of  the 
great  advantages  to  be  derived  from  underdraining ;  the 
praises  of  the  system  found  an  echo  in  every  nook  and 
corner  of  the  country ;  and  nothing  ever  was  so  universally 
practiced  in  Germany  in  so  short  a  time  from  the  period 
of  its  first  introduction  as  thorough  draining. 


DRAINAGE  IN  FRANCE. 

From  returns  gathered  about  the  middle  of  1856,  it  ap- 
pears that  there  were  then  about  80,000  English  acres  of 
thorough-drained  land,  and  396  tile  works  in  France. 
The  money  expended  in  draining,  from  1850,  when  this 
improvement  was  begun  in  France,  up  to  the  summer  of 
1856,  accordingly  amounts  to  $8,000,000;  the  expense  of 
draining  being  about  $20  per  acre.. 

During  the  draining  season  (autumn)  of  1856,  up  to 
January  1,  1857,  no  less  than  85,000  acres  were  drained. 

Of  these  165,000  acres,  only  45,000  acres  were  drained 
by  care  or  assistance  of  the  government ;  the  remainder 
is  the  work  of  private  enterprise.  When  will  American 
farmers  become  convinced  that  thorough  draining  is  one 
of  the  most  important  aids  to  agriculture ! 


DRAINAGE  IN  THE    UNITED   STATES.  27 

DRAINAGE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

THE  introduction  of  tile  drainage  in  the  United  States 
may  be  given  in  a  very  few  words.  The  following  account, 
prepared  by  a  correspondent  of  the  New  York  Tribune, 
and  corrected  and  revised  by  the  editor  of  the  Country 
Gentleman,  is  perhaps  the  best  account  that  has  yet  been 
written  on  the  subject.  It  is  true,  we  might  state,  that 
"Mr.  John  Johnston,  of  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  introduced  tile 
draining  on  his  farm  in  1835  ;  that,  in  1848,  John  Dela- 
field  of  Seneca  county,  N.  Y.,  introduced  the  first  tile 
machine  (Scragg's  patent,  imported  from  England) ;"  and 
witn  this  passing  notice  proceed  to  the  next  chapter. 
But  those  for  whom  this  treatise  is  written  will  naturally 
inquire,  "  What  induced  him  to  drain?  Where  did  he  ob- 
tain tile  ?  How  much  and  in  what  manner  did  he  drain  ? 
What  did  it  cost?  Did  it  pay?"  and  a  host  of  other 
questions.  It  will,  therefore,  be  satisfactory,  even  at  the 
expense  of  some  space,  to  present  a  detailed  statement  of 
all  the  circumstances  surrounding  and  attending  his 
efforts. 

JOHN  JOHNSTON'S  SYSTEM  OF  DRAINAGE. 

Mr.  John  Johnson,  near  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  at  one  time 
esteemed  a  fanatic  by  his  neighbors,  has  come  of  late 
years  to  be  generally  known  as  "  the  father  of  tile  drain- 
age in  America."  After  thirty  years  of  precept  and  twenty- 
two  of  example,  he  has  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  his  favor- 
ite theory  fully  accepted,  and,  to  some  extent,  practically 
applied  throughout  the  country.  Not  without  labor,  how- 
ever, nor  without  much  skepticism,  ridicule  and  contro- 
versy has  this  end  been  attained ;  and  if,  now  that  his 
head  is  whitened  and  his  course  all  but  run,  he  finds  him- 
self respected,  and  appealed  to  by  persons  in  every  state 
of  the  Union,  ho  does  not  forget  that  it  has  been  by  much 


28  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

tribulation  that  he  has  worked  out  this  exceeding  great 
weight  of  glory.  Mr.  Johnston  is  a  Scotchman,  who  came 
to  this  country  thirty-nine  years  ago,  and  purchased  the 
farm  he  now  occupies,  on  the  easterly  shore  of  Seneca 
lake,  a  short  distance  from  Geneva.  With  the  pertinacity 
of  his  nation,  he  staid  where  he  first  settled,  through  ill 
fortune  and  prosperity,  wisely  concluding  that,  by  always 
bettering  his  farm,  he  would  better  himself,  and  make 
more  money  in  the  long  run  than  he  could  by  shifting  un- 
easily from  place  to  place  in  search  of  sudden  wealth.  He 
was  poor  enough  at  the  commencement ;  but  what  did  that 
matter  to  a  frugal,  industrious  man,  willing  to  live  within 
his  means,  and  work  hard  to  increase  them?  And  so, 
with  unflagging  zeal,  he  has  gone  on  from  that  day  to 
this. 

HIS  FARM. 

«• 

His  first  purchase  was  112  acres  of  land,  well  situated, 
but  said  to  be  the  poorest  in  the  county.  He  knew  better 
than  that,  however,  for  although  the  previous  tenant  had 
all  but  starved  upon  it,  and  the  neighbors  told  him  such 
would  be  his  own  fate,  he  had  seen  poorer  land  forced  to 
yield  large  crops  in  the  old  country,  and  so  he  concluded 
to  try  the  chances  for  life  or  death.  The  soil  was  a  heavy 
gravelly  clay,  with  a  tenacious  clay  subsoil,  a  perfectly 
tight  reservoir  for  water,  cold,  hard-baked,  and  cropped 
down  to  about  the  last  gasp.  The  magician  commenced  his 
work.  He  found  in  the  barn-yard  a  great  pile  of  manure, 
the  accumulations  of  years,  well  rotted,  black  as  ink,  and 
"  mellow  as  an  ash-heap."  This  he  put  on  as  much  land 
as  possible,  at  the  rate  of  twenty-five  loads  to  the  acre, 
plowed  it  in  deeply,  sowed  his  grain,  cleaned  out  the  weeds 
as  well  as  he  could,  and  the  land  on  which  he  was  to  starve 
gave  him  about  forty  bushels  of  wheat  per  acre.  The  re- 
sult was,  as  usual,  attributed  to  luck,  and  anything  but 


29 

the  real  cause.  To  turn  over  such  deep  furrows  was  sheer 
folly,  and  such  heavy  dressings  of  manure  would  not  fail 
to  destroy  the  seed.  But  it  didn't;  and  let  our  farmers 
remember  that  it  never  will ;  and  if  they  wish  to  get  rich, 
let  them  cut  out  this  article,  read  it  often,  and  follow  the 
example  of  our  fanatical  Scotch  friend. 

This  system  of  deep  plowing  and  heavy  manuring 
wrought  its  result  in  due  time.  Paying  off  his  debt,  put- 
ting up  buildings,  and  purchasing  stock  each  year,  to  fat- 
ten and  sell,  Mr.  Johnston  after  seventeen  years  of  hard 
work  at  last  found  himself  ready  to  incur  a  new  debt,  and 
to  commence  laying  tile  drains.  Of  the  benefits  to  be 
derived  from  drainage  he  had  long  been  aware ;  for  he 
recollected  that  when  he  was  only  ten  years  of  age,  his 
grandfather,  a  thrifty  farmer  in  Scotland,  seeing  the  good 
effects  of  some  stone  drains  laid  down  upon  his  place,  had 
said :  "  Varily,  I  believe  the  whole  airth  should  be 
drained."  This  quaint  saying,  which  needs  but  little 
qualification,  made  a  lasting  impression  on  the  mind  of 
the  boy,  that  was  to  be  tested  by  the  man,  to  the  perma- 
nent benefit  of  this  country. 

Without  sufficient  means  himself,  he  applied  for  a  loan 
to  the  Bank  of  Geneva,  and  the  president,  knowing  his 
integrity  and  industry,  granted  his  request.  In  1835  tiles 
were  not  made  in  this  country,  so  Mr.  Johnston  imported 
some  as  samples,  and  a  quantity  of  the  "  horse-shoe " 
pattern  were  made  in  1838,  at  Waterloo.  There  was  no 
machine  for  producing  them,  so  they  were  made  by  hand 
and  molded  over  a  stick.  This  slow  and  laborious  process 
brought  their  cost  to  $24  per  thousand,  but  even  at  this 
enormous  price,  Mr.  Johnston  determined  to  use  them. 
His  ditches  were  opened  and  his  tile  laid,  and  then  what 
sport  for  the  neighbors  !  They  poked  fun  at  the  deluded 
man;  they  came  and  counseled  with  him,  all  the  while 


30  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

watching  his  bright  eye  and  intelligent  face  for  signs  of 
lunacy;  they  went  by  wagging  their  heads  and  saying, 
"Aha!"  and  one  and  all  said  he  was  a  consummate  ass  to 
put  crockery  under  ground  and  bury  his  money  so  fruit- 
lessly. Poor  Mr.  Johnston !  he  says  he  really  felt  ashamed 
of  himself  for  trying  the  new  plan,  and  when  people  riding 
past  the  house  would  shout  at  him,  and  make  contemptuous 
signs,  he  was  sore-hearted  and  almost  ready  to  conceal  his 
crime.  But  what  was  the  result  ?  Why  this  :  that  land 
which  was  previously  sodden  with  water,  and  utterly 
unfruitful,  in  one  season  was  covered  with  luxuriant  crops, 
and  the  jeering  skeptics  were  utterly  confounded;  that  in 
two  crops  all  his  outlay  for  tiles  and  labor  was  repaid,  and 
he  could  start  afresh  and  drain  more  land ;  that  the  profit 
was  so  manifest  as  to  induce  him  to  extend  his  operations 
each  succeeding  year,  and  so  go  on  until  1856,  when  his 
labor  was  finished,  after  having  laid  210,000  tiles,  or  more 
than  fifty  miles  in  length !  And  the  fame  of  this  individual 
success  going  forth,  one  and  another  duplicated  his  ex- 
periment, and  were  rewarded  according  to  their  deserts. 
It  was  not  long  after  the  manufacture  of  the  first  lot  of 
tiles  that  a  machine  was  contrived  which  would  make  quite 
as  well,  and  faster ;  and  by  its  aid  they  wTere  afforded  at 
quite  as  low  a  price  as  after  an  English  machine  was  im- 
ported. The  horse-shoe  tile  has  been  used  by  Mr.  John- 
ston almost  exclusively,  for  the  reason  that  they  were  the 
only  kind  to  be  procured  at  first,  and  on  his  hard  subsoil, 
finding  them  to  do  as  well  as  he  could  wish,  he  has  not 
cared  to  make  new  experiments.  He  has  drains  that  have 
been  in  function  for  more  than  twenty  years  without  need- 
ing repair,  and  are  apparently  as  efficient  now  as  they 
were  when  first  laid.  In  soft  land,  pipe  or  sole  tiles 
would  be  preferable,  or  if  horse-shoe  were  used  they 
should  be  placed  on  strips  of  rough  board,  to  prevent 


JOHNSTON'S  SYSTEM.  31 

their  sinking  into  the  trench  bottom,  or  being  thrown  out 
of  the  regular  fall  by  being  undermined  by  the  running 
water.  He  has  not  used  the  plow  for  opening  his  trenches, 
for  the  reason  that  all  his  work  has  been  let  out  by  con- 
tract, and  the  men  have  opened  them  by  the  spade;  charg- 
ing from  twelve  and  a  half  to  fifteen  cents  per  rod  for 
opening  and  making  the  bottom  ready  for  the  tile.  The 
laying  and  filling  was  done  by  the  owner. 

HIS    PRACTICE. 

His  ditches  are  dug  only  two  and  a  half  feet  deep,  and 
thirteen  inches  wide  at  the  top,  sloping  inward  to  the 
bottom,  where  they  are  just  wide  enough  to  take  the  tile. 
One  main  drain,  in  which  are  placed  two  four-inch  tiles 
set  eight  inches  apart,  with  an  arch  piece  of  tile  having  a 
nine-inch  span  set  on  top  of  them,  was  dug  three  and  a 
half  and  four  feet  deep,  and  this  serves  as  a  conduit  for 
the  water  from  a  large  system  of  laterals.  Drains  should 
never  be  left  open  in  winter,  for  the  dirt  dislodged  by 
frequent  frosts  so  fills  the  bottom  that  it  will  cost  five  or 
six  cents  per  rod  to  clear  them ;  and,  moreover,  the  banks 
often  become  so  crumbled  away  that  the  ditch  can  not  be 
straddled  by  a  team  of  horses,  and  thus  most  of  the  fill- 
ing must  be  done  by  hand.  Mr.  Johnston  in  draining  a 
field  commences  at  the  foot  of  each  ditch  and  works  up  to 
the  head.  He  opens  his  mains  first,  and  then  the  lateral 
or  small  drains,  but  he  lays  the  tiles  in  the  laterals  and 
fills  them  completely  before  laying  the  pipe  in  the  mains. 
The  object  of  this  is  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  sedi- 
ment in  the  mains,  which  would  naturally  be  washed  from 
the  laterals  on  their  first  being  laid.  By  commencing  at 
the  foot  of  each  ditch  and  working  upward,  he  can  always 
get  and  preserve  the  regular  fall,  which  may  be  dictated 
by  the  features  of  his  field,  more  easily  than  by  working 


32  LAND  DRAINAGE. 

toward  the  outlet.  A  little  practice  teaches  the  ditchers 
how  to  preserve  the  grade  almost  as  well  as  if  gauges 
were  employed ;  but  before  laying  the  tiles,  the  instrument 
is  applied  to  test  the  bottom  thoroughly.1  The  necessity 
of  this  precaution  will  be  apparent  to  any  one  who  reflects 
that  if  a  tile  or  two  in  the  course  of  a  ditch  be  set  much 
too  high  or  too  low  at  either  end,  the  water  quickly  forms 
a  basin  beneath  and  around,  sediment  is  washed  into  the 
adjoining  pipe,  and  ultimately  even  the  whole  bore  is  filled 
and  the  drain  stopped.  When  this  happens  it  will  be  in- 
dicated after  a  time  by  the  water  appearing  at  the  surface 
of  the  ground  above  the  spot — drawn  upward  by  capillary 
attraction.  In  such  a  case  the  ditch  must  be  reopened 
and  the  tile  relaid. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Mr.  Johnston  says  tile-draining  pays  for  itself  in  two 
seasons,  sometimes  in  one.  Thus,  in  1847,  he  bought  a 
piece  of  ten  acres  to  get  an  outlet  for  his  drains.  It  was 
a  perfect  quagmire,  covered  with  coarse  aquatic  grasses, 
and  so  unfruitful  that  it  would  not  give  back  the  seed  sown 
upon  it.  In  1848  a  crop  of  corn  was  taken  from  it,  which 
was  measured  and  found  to  be  eighty  bushels  per  acre,  and 
as,  because  of  the  Irish  famine,  corn  was  worth  $1  per 
bushel  that  year,  this  crop  paid  not  only  all  the  expense 
of  drainage,  but  the  first  cost  of  the  land  as  well. 

Another  piece  of  twenty  acres,  adjoining  the  farm  of 
the  late  John  Delafield,  was  wet  and  would  never  bring 
more  than  ten  bushels  of  corn  per  acre.  This  was  drained 
at  a  great  cost,  nearly  $30  per  acre.  The  first  crop  after 
this  was  83  bushels  and  some  odd  pounds  per  acre.  It 
was  weighed  and  measured  by  Mr.  Delafield,  and  the 
county  society  awarded  a  premium  to  Mr.  Johnston. 

1 1  never  used  a  leveling  instrument.  I  always  had  water,  which  is  the 
best  instrument. — J.  J. 


JOHNSTON'S  SYSTEM.  33 

Eight  acres  and  some  rods  of  this  land,  at  one  side,  aver- 
aged 94  bushels,  or  the  trifling  increase  of  84  bushels  per 
acre  over  what  it  would  bear  before  those  insignificant 
clay  tiles  were  buried  in  the  ground.  But  this  increase 
of  crop  is  not  the  only  profit  o£  drainage ;  for  Mr.  John- 
ston says  that  on  drained  land  one  half  the  usual  quantity 
of  manure  suffices  to  give  maximum  crops.  It  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  find  a  reason  for  this.  When  the  soil  is  sodden 
with  water,  air  can  not  enter  to  any  extent,  and  hence 
oxygen  can  not  eat  off  the  surfaces  of  soil-particles  and 
prepared  food  for  plants;  thus  the  plant  must  in  great 
measure  depend  on  the  manure  for  sustenance,  and  of 
course  the  more  this  is  the  case,  the  more  manure  must 
be  applied  to  get  good  crops.  This  is  one  reason,  but 
there  are  others  which  we  might  adduce  if  one  good  one 
were  not  sufficient. 

Mr.  Johnston  says  h.e  never  made  money  until  he 
drained,  and  so  convinced  is  he  of  the  benefits  accruing 
from  the  practice,  that  he  would  not  hesitate — as  he  did 
not  when  the  result  was  much  more  uncertain  than  at 
present — to  borrow  money  to  drain.  Drains  well  laid, 
endure,  but  unless  a  farmer  intends  doing  the  job  well  he 
had  best  leave  it  alone  and  grow  poor,  and  move  out  West, 
and  all  that  sort  of  thing.  Occupiers  of  apparently  dry 
land  are  not  safe  in  concluding  that  they  need  not  go  to 
the  expense  of  draining,  for  if  they  will  but  dig  a  three- 
foot  ditch  in  even  the  driest  soil,  water  will  be  found  in 
the  bottom  at  the  end  of  eight  hours,  and  if  it  does  come, 
then  draining  will  pay  for  itself  speedily.  For  instance : 
Mr.  Johnston  had  a  lot  of  thirteen  acres  on  the  shore  of 
the  lake,  where  the  bank  at  the  foot  of  the  lot  was  per- 
pendicular to  the  depth  of  thirty  or  forty  feet.  He  sup- 
posed from  this  fact,  and  because  the  surface  seemed  very 
dry,  that  he  had  no  need  to  drain  it.  But  somehow  he 


34  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

lost  his  crops  continually,  and  as  he  had  put  them  in  as 
well  as  he  knew  how,  he  naturally  concluded  that  he  must 
lay  some  tile.  So  he  engaged  an  Irishman  to  open  a 
ditch,  with  a  proviso  that  if  water  should  come  into  it  in 
eight  hours,  he  would  drain  the  entire  piece.  The  top 
soil  was  so  hard  and  dry  as  to  need  an  application  of  the 
pick,  but  at  the  depth  of  a  foot  it  was  found  to  be  so  wet 
and  soft  that  a  spade  could  easily  be  sunk  to  the  entire 
depth  of  ten  inches  with  little  force.  The  ditches  were 
made,  and  in  less  than  the  specified  time  a  brave  lot  of 
water  flowed  in.  The  piece  was  thoroughly  drained,  and 
the  result  was  an  immense  crop  of  corn.  The  field  has 
regularly  borne  60  or  70  bushels  since.  Corn  was  planted 
for  a  first  crop  in  this  and  the  preceding  instances,  be- 
cause a  paying  crop  is  obtained  in  one  year,  whereas  if 
wheat  were  sown  it  would  be  necessary  to  wait  two  sea- 
sons. He  always  drains  when  the  field  is  in  grass,  if  pos- 
sible, for  the  ditches  can  be  made  easily ;  and  Spring  is 
chosen  that  the  la,bor  may  not  be  interfered  with  by  frosts. 
To  show  how  necessary  it  is  to  avoid  planting  trees 
over  drains,  we  quote  a  case  in  point.  In  a  lot  adjoining 
his  house  are  four  large  elms  which  are  marked  to  be  felled, 
and  for  the  reason  that  the  lot  was  formerly  so  wet  that 
a  pond  of  water  stood  upon  it  in  winter,  and  throughout 
the  season1  the  children  skated  and  slid  upon  it.  It  was 
drained,  and  all  went  well  for  a  time ;  but  after  seven 
years  Mr.  Johnston  found  his  drains  did  not  discharge 
properly,  and  that  in  certain  places  the  water  came  to  the 
surface,  so  as  to  destroy  or  greatly  lessen  the  crop  above 
them.  He  could  not  account  for  the  circumstances  until 
he  dug  down  to  the  drain  at  each  of  these  spots,  when,  to 
his  surprise,  he  found  the  tile  [two  four-inch  tile  with  a 
semi-circle  of  nine  inch  set  on  top  of  them,]  completely 
choked  with  fibrous  roots  of  the  elms. 


JOHNSTON'S  SYSTEM.  35 

Mr.  Johnston  says  he  never  saw  one  hundred  acres  in 
any  one  farm,  but  a  portion  of  it  would  pay  for  draining. 
Mr.  Johnston  is  no  rich  man  who  has  carried  a  favorite 
hobby  without  regard  to  cost  or  profit.  He  is  a  hard- 
working Scotch  farmer,  who  commenced  a  poor  man,  bor- 
rowed money  to  drain  his  land,  has  gradually  extended 
his  operations,  and  is  now  reaping  the  benefits,  in  having 
crops  of  forty  bushels  of  wheat  to  the  acre.  He  is  a  gray- 
haired  Nestor,  who,  after  accumulating  the  experience  of 
a  long  life,  is  now  at  sixty-eight  years  of  age,  written  to 
by  strangers  in  every  state  of  the  Union  for  information, 
not  only  in  drainage  matters,  but  all  cognate  branches  of 
farming.  He  sits  in  his  homestead  a  veritable  Humboldt 
in  his  way,  dispensing  information  cheerfully  through  our 
agricultural  papers  and  to  private  correspondents,  of 
whom  he  has  recorded  164  who  applied  to  him  last  year. 
His  opinions  are,  therefore,  worth  more  than  those  of  a 
host  of  theoretical  men,  who  write  without  practice.  He 
says  that  the  retrogression  of  our  agriculture  in  the  older 
states,  is  to  be  accounted  for  in  our  lack  of  drainage,  poor 
feeding  of  stock,  which  results  in  giving  a  small  quantity 
of  poor  manure,  and  in  not  keeping  enough  to  make  ma- 
nure. He  applies  twenty -five  loads  of  manure  to  the  acre 
at  the  beginning  of  a  rotation,  and  this  lasts  throughout 
the  course.  He  learned  from  his  grandfather  that  no 
farmer  could  afford  to  keep  any  animal  that  did  not  im- 
prove on  his  hands,  and  that  as  soon  as  it  was  in  good 
marketable  condition  it  should  be  sold  and  replaced  by 
another.  This  theory  he  has  always  carried  out,  and  as 
a  natural  consequence,  has  always  got  higher  prices  for 
his  beef  stock,  and  a  ready  market  in  the  dullest  of  times. 

Although  his  farm  is  mainly  devoted  to  wheat,  yet  a 
considerable  area  of  meadow  and  some  pasture  has  been 
retained.  He  now  owns  about  300  acres  of  land.  The 


36  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

yield  of  wheat  has  been  40  bushels  this  year,  and  in  for- 
mer seasons,  when  his  neighbors  were  reaping  8,  10,  or 
15  bushels,  he  has  had  30  and  40.  We  are  informed  by  him 
that  there  has  been  no  such  crop  as  the  present  since  1845, 
either  in  yield  or  quality ;  and  the  absence  of  weevil  is 
remarkable.  A  variety  of  white  wheat  from  Missouri, 
sown  more  thinly  than  usual,  has  yielded  31  bushels  to 
something  less  than  one  bushel  of  seed  sown.  It  headed 
out  a  fortnight  earlier  than  the  Soule's,  but  ripened  later 
— probably  because  thinly  sown.  Mr.  Johnston  thinks 
we  have  been  sowing  too  thickly  for  fifteen  years  past 
upon  rich  land,  and  there  can  be  no  question  but  that  he 
is  right.  Still,  it  is  better  to  take  a  medium  course  be- 
tween thick  and  thin  sowing,  and  thus  avoid,  on  the  one 
hand,  rust,  overcrowding,  and  waste  of  seed,  and  on  the 
other,  placing  an  entire  crop  at  the  mercy  of  insects  which 
may  attack  it. 

SALT   FOR   RUST. 

As  a  sure  preventive  to  rust,  to  give  stiffness  to  the 
straw,  and  to  expedite  the  ripening  of  wheat,  by  four  or 
five  days,  Mr.  Johnston  sows  five  bushels  of  salt  to  the 
acre,  broadcast,  after  seeding.  He  thinks,  moreover,  that 
for  each  of  the  five  bushels  of  salt  almost  an  extra  bushel 
of  wheat  may  be  expected. 

SIZE   OF    TILES   FOR  MAINS   AND   LATERALS. 

A  too  common  error  with  improving  farmers  is  that  of 
using  too  small  tile  for  main  drains,  and  too  large  for  lat- 
erals. Those  accustomed  to  the  roomy  conduits  of  ordi- 
nary stone  drains,  suppose  that  nothing  less  than  a  three 
inch  bore  will  conduct  the  drainage  from  the  surface  into 
the  mains ;  and  curiously  enough  the  same  persons,  un- 
mindful of  the  large  area  drained  by  each  system  of  late- 
rals, err  in  using  mains  but  little  larger  in  bore  than  the 


37 

latter.  If  any  are  willing  to  look  into  the  results  of  the 
drainage  on  our  Central  Park,  the  most  stupendous  work 
of  the  kind  in  the  country,  and  one  of  the  best  conducted, 
they  will  find  that  the  one  and  a  half  inch  and  two  inch 
tiles  there  used  for  laterals  do  not  run  full  even  after  the 
most  violent  and  protracted  rains,  and  yet  from  a  single 
"  system"  of  twelve  acres,  the  discharge  after  a  recent 
rain  was  at  the  rate  of  3,000  gallons  per  hour.  This  error 
of  using  too  large  tile  Mr.  Johnston  fell  into,  and  now 
that  he  has  learned  better  after  a  twenty  years'  experi- 
ence, he  cautions  his  brother  farmers  against  using  larger 
than  two  inch  tile  for  laterals.  For  mains  each  farmer 
must  provide  as  the  quantity  of  water  to  be  conducted  is 
greater  or  less.  In  many  cases  Mr.  Johnston  has  used 
two  rows  of  four  inch,  in  others  six  inch,  and  in  one,  semi- 
circles of  eleven  inches,  one  as  top  and  one  as  bottom, 
making  a  pipe  nine  inches  bore  to  discharge  water.  At 
first  he  had  many  to  take  up  and  replace  with  large  pipe 
to  secure  a  complete  discharge.  Main  drains  he  makes 
six  to  eight  inches  deeper  than  those  emptying  into  them 
— not  with  an  abrupt  shoulder,  but  leveled  up,  so  that  the 
descent  may  take  place  gradually  in  the  length  of  two 
tiles — 29  inches — and  always  giving  the  laterals  a  slight 
sidewise  direction  at  the  end,  so  that  their  water  will  be 
discharged  down  stream  into  the  mains. 

Another  error  he  at  first  fell  into  was,  in  having  too 
many  drains  on  lowlands,  and  not  enough  on  the  uplands ; 
thus  seeking  to  carry  off  the  effect,  while  the  cause — the 
outcropping  springs  on  the  hillside — remained  untouched. 
Where  the  source  of  the  water  is  most  abundant,  the 
means  for  removing  it  should  most  abundantly  be  furn- 
ished. Rain  water  falls  on  hills,  sinks  to  an  impervious 
stratum,  along  which  it  runs  until  it  either  finds  a  porous 
section  through  which  it  can  fall  to  a  lower  level,  or  not 


38  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

finding  such,  continues  on  the  hard  bottom  of  the  side  of 
the  hill,  where  it  crops  out  in  the  form  of  a  spring.  If 
this  spring  water  is  suffered  to  run  down  hill,  it  washes 
the  hillside  more  or  less,  and  coming  to  the  lowland,  sinks 
as  far  as  it  may  into  the  soil,  makes  it  sodden,  and  pro- 
duces bad  effects.  To  drain  effectually,  then,  we  must 
cut  off  the  supply  above,  and  fewer  drains  will  be  neces- 
sary below.  Here  is  the  whole  secret  of  the  thing,  and 
here  we  see  why  so  much  money  is  spent  to  so  little  pur- 
pose by  those  who  think  that  they  should  only  drain  wet 
lowland.  Appearances  are  deceitful,  and  we  should  not 
suppose  that  a  seemingly  dry  upland  is  really  dry. 

Tile  works  have  been  established  at  many  places  in  New 
York  state,  in  several  places  in  Massachusetts,  in  twelve 
or  fifteen  counties  in  Ohio.  Some  five  or  six  different 
tile  machines  are  in  active  operation  at  Cleveland,  and  are 
unable  to  supply  the  demand ;  in  fact  so  far  as  demand  is 
concerned,  the  same  may  be  said  of  every  place  at  which 
tile  are  made  in  Ohio.  Michigan,  Indiana,  Maryland  and 
several  other  states  have  tile  works. 

Considerable  draining  has  been  done  in  the  north-west 
part  of  Ohio,  in  that  region  more  familiarly  known  as  the 
Black  Swamp — a  peculiar  formation  extending  over  sev- 
eral counties — by  means  of  open  ditches.  Brush,  wood  and 
stone  drains  are  not  unknown  in  Ohio  ;  and  within  a  few 
years  past  upward  of  four  hundred  miles  of  underdrain- 
irig  have  been  done  in  Union,  Clark,  Madison,  Fayette, 
Highland  and  Clinton  counties,  by  means  of  the  so-called 
mole  plow — a  detailed  description  of  this  machine  will  be 
found  in  an  appropriate  portion  of  this  work. 


PART    I . 


THEORY  OF  DRAINAGE. 


INTRODUCTION 

THE  chief  object  of  drainage  is  to  liberate  the  super- 
fluous moisture  in  springy  land,  or  such  lands  as  have  an 
impervious  strata  near  the  surface  of  the  soil — the  carry- 
ing away  of  the  water  which  accumulates  on  the  surface, 
from  rains,  snows,  or  freshets,  is  a  secondary  object  only 
of  thorough  drainage.  Where  there  are  springs,  there  is 
a  continued  tendency  of  the  water  to  force  through  the 
superincumbent  strata,  so  as  to  rise  and  spread  over  the 
surface — such  land  must,  even  in  times  of  drought,  con- 
tain more  than  a  proper  amount  of  moisture. 

Where  there  is  an  impervious  subsoil,  it  is  there  where 
subterranean  waters  accumulate  and  remain  a  given 
period,  and  then,  perhaps,  disappear.  As  a  general  thing, 
this  ground  water  sinks  the  deepest,  late  in  the  summer ; 
in  autumn  it  begins  to  rise,  and  in  winter  and  spring  it 
attains  its  maximum  hight.  Now,  when  the  winter  and 
spring  waters,  from  rains  and  snows,  from  the  surface, 
find  their  ways  down  to  the  waters  retained,  and  resting 
on  the  subsoil,  then  the  entire  soil  becomes  too  thoroughly 
saturated  with  moisture  to  admit  of  tillage  operations. 
Winter  grains  will  not  succeed  at  all  in  such  a  soil,  and 
summer  crops  are  at  best  very  precarious.  The  roots  of 
winter  plants,  in  quest  of  nourishment,  penetrate  to  the 
subsoil,  and  finding  a  superabundance  of  water  there, 
become  dropsical,  and,  consequently,  perish  ;  but  if  the 

(39) 


40  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

roots  can  possibly  find  their  way  into  a  drier  portion  of 
the  soil,  even  by  returning  toward  the  surface  (they  not  un- 
frequently  do  so),  yet  even  then  they  become  diseased,  and 
the  plant  becomes  unthrifty  and  yields  but  a  small  pro- 
duct ;  for,  according  to  the  natural  tendency,  every  plant 
pushes  its  roots  downward,  and  if  it  does  not  succeed,  it 
is  prevented  only  by  the  stony  or  watery  condition  of 
the  subsoil.  But  even  when  the  water  is  withdrawn  from 
the  surface  of  the  field,  there  is  still  but  little  to  be  hoped 
for  in  regard  to  cultivated  plants ;  for  the  soil,  previously 
softened,  now  hardened  by  the  influence  of  the  sun's  rays 
and  air,  does  not  permit  the  requisite  circulation  of  air, 
and  prevents  the  extension  of  the  roots.  A  very  natural 
consequence  is,  that  the  plants  become  diseased  and  yield 
but  little. 

The  same  condition  of  things  exists  also  with  respect 
to  summer  crops  upon  wet  grounds.  Late  sowing,  alone, 
can  succeed ;  the  water-hardened  soil  is  very  difficult  to 
work,  and,  therefore,  affords  a  very  incompetent  nidus  or 
bed  for  the  growth  of  plants.  Consequently,  plants  suc- 
ceed badly,  under  all  these  circumstances ;  an  entire  fail- 
ure of  the  crop,  indeed,  may  occur,  if  a  sudden  violent 
rain  unites  its  influence  with  the  rising  ground  water. 

Now  a  rational  agriculture  requires  that  the  spring 
and  ground  water  be  removed;  for,  however  necessary 
moisture  in  the  soil  may  be  for  the  successful  growth  of 
the  plants,  yet,  as  we  have  experienced,  an  excessive 
moisture  produces  the  opposite  effect.  An  excess  of 
moisture  in  the  soil,  is  recognized  by  certain  water  plants, 
such  as  bent-grass,  reeds,  shave-grass,moss,ranunculacae, 
etc.,  growing,  and  gradually  crowding  out  useful  plants. 
The  color  and  condition  of  the  plants  themselves,  also 
indicate  the  superabundance  of  moisture  in  the  soil. 
They  are  generally  coarse  and  reddish,  when  their  plants 


THEORY   OF   DRAINAGE.  41 

vegetate  in  excessive  moisture.  The  standing  of  rain  or 
snow  water  upon  the  surface,  is  also  evidence  of  a  super- 
abundance of  moisture,  or  if,  afterward,  rents  or  cracks 
appear,  or  a  crust  of  ice  form  in  the  furrows  at  the  slight- 
est frost.  Finally,  the  appearance  of  the  soil  at  certain 
seasons,  shows  that  it  suffers  on  account  of  too  much 
water.  If,  for  example,  the  spring  winds  have  dried  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  so  that  one  would  think  all  the 
moisture  gone,  and  dark  spots  present  themselves  upon 
the  surface,  this  shows  that  much  water  stands  there. 


We  will  now  proceed  to  give  a  chapter  on  soils  gene- 
rally, and  their  properties,  then  to  state  how  drainage 
operates,  and  also  discuss  the  advantages  of  underdrain- 
ing  by  demonstrating — so  far  as  theory  (not  hypothesis),  in 
its  proper  sense,  is  susceptible  of  demonstration — that 
drainage, 

I.  Removes  stagnant  waters  from  the  surface. 

II.  Removes  surplus  water  from  under  the  surface. 

III.  Lengthens  the  seasons. 

IV.  Deepens  the  soil. 

V.  Warms  the  under  soil. 

VI.  Equalizes  the  temperature  of  the  soil  during  the 
season  of  growth. 

VII.  Carries  down  soluble  substances  to  the  roots  of 
plants. 

VIII.  Prevents  "  freezing  out,"  or  "  heaving  out." 

IX.  Prevents  injury  from  drought. 

X.  Improves  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  crops. 

XI.  Increases  the  effect  of  manures. 

XII.  Prevents  rust  in  wheat  and  rot  in  potatoes. 


CHAPTER    I. 


PROPERTIES     OF    SOILS. 

IN  a  work  of  this  character,  it  may  not  be  necessary 
to  describe  the  chemical  composition  of  soils,  although 
very  proper  to  state  what  properties  are  desirable 
for  remunerative  cultivation.  It  not  unfrequently  hap- 
pens, that  the  properties  or  qualities  of  soil  are  inhe- 
rent: that  is,  the  cause  of  productiveness  is  to  be  ascribed 
to  the  peculiar  combination  of  substances  composing  the 
soil,  which  no  chemical  analyses  have  yet  been  able  to 
discover,  and  which  has  not  been  produced  by  any  arti- 
ficial combination  or  process.  Scientific  investigations  of 
the  soil  have  accomplished  little  else  than  a  determination 
of  the  elementary  substances  or  constituents,  as  well  as 
some  inherent  properties,  such  as  color,  weight,  and  fa- 
cility of  combination  with  other  ingredients.  A  practi- 
cal examination  of  the  adaptation  of  soil  for  cultivation, 
renders  a  consideration  of  some  of  the  other  properties 
necessary. 

The  physical  properties  of  the  soil  are  of  very  great 
importance,  so  far  as  the  culture  of  plants  is  concerned. 
It  may,  perhaps,  not  be  asserting  too  much  to  say,  that 
the  physical  properties  of  the  soil  exert  a  more  direct  in- 
fluence upon  the  plant,  upon  the  atmosphere  in  contact 
with  it,  and  upon  water,  than  do  the  chemical  combina- 
tions of  its  elements.  The  degree  of  fineness  of  the  mine- 
ral particles  of  the  soil;  its  power  of  cohesion,  moisture; 
its  adaptation  to  the  percolation  of  water,  and  permeation 
of  atmosphere  ;  its  power  to  absorb  moisture  by  capillary 
attraction,  to  absorb  gases,  to  retain  heat  or  warmth,  ex- 
ert, perhaps,  a  greater  influence  than  is  generally  believed. 

42 


PKOPEKTIES   OF   SOILS.  43 

Therefore,  it  is,  why  soils  frequently  are  nearly  identical 
in  their  chemical  analyses,  yet  differ  so  materially  in  their 
productiveness.  Underdraining  proposes  simply  to  affect 
the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  without  disturbing  its 
chemical  composition. 

Clay — Pure  clay  forms  a  very  heavy  and  compact  soil ; 
but  if  it  is  burned  and  then  ground,  it  forms  a  very 
porous  soil,  and  is  much  better  adapted  to  the  growth  of 
crops.  A  soil  in  which  silicious  (flinty  sand),  and  calca- 
reous (limey)  earths  predominate,  becomes  so  hot  and 
parched,  that  the  plants  wither  and  die ;  on  the  other 
hand,  if  these  same  substances  are  finely  comminuted  or 
reduced  to  powder,  they  form  a  soil  which  absorbs  entirely 
too  much  moisture,  and  plants  suffer  in  consequence. 

One  hundred  pounds  of  calcareous  earths  in  an  ordi- 
nary state,  will  absorb  twenty-nine  pounds  of  water,  but 
when  finely  comminuted,  will  absorb  eighty-five  pounds.1 
Silicious  earths,  which  usually  retain  no  more  than  twenty- 
five  per  cent,  of  moisture,  when  properly  prepared  in  a 
chemical  laboratory,  may  be  made  to  retain  two  hundred 
and  eighty  per  cent,  of  moisture. 

The  variety  of  colors  in  soil,  is  not  very  considerable, 
generally  brown  or  gray,  changing  into  yellow ;  but  some- 
times it  is  found  very  red  or  black ;  sometimes  it  is 
strongly  inclined  to  white,  blue  or  green,  and  sometimes 
almost  endless  shades  present  themselves.  The  soils  all 
appear  much  darker  in  the  field  than  in  the  laboratory, 
because  in  the  former  place  they  are  always  moist,  and  in 
the  latter,  dry.  The  predominating  mineral  constituent, 
generally,  imparts  the  color  to  the  soil — thus,  a  soil  in 
which  iron  predominates,  is  of  a  reddish  hue,  an  alumin- 

1  Gerardin's  Views  of  Agriculture. 


44  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

ous  one,  yellow,  a  calcareous  one,  bluish  or  whitish.  When 
humus  (decayed  vegetable  or  organic  matter)  is  mingled 
with  a  soil,  it  assumes  a  dark  brown  or  blackish  appear- 
ance, so  that,  in  course  of  time,  the  original  color  of  the 
soil  will  entirely  disappear.  Porphyry,  mica  schist,  the 
clay  slates,  and  the  various  sandstone  formations  produce 
a  reddish  soil.  Basalt  produces  a  brown  or  black  ;  ser- 
pentine, green ;  phonolite  or  clinkstone  (a  feldspathic 
rock),  white;  sandstone,  plaster  and  white  lime  produce 
a  whitish  gray  soil.  Humus  (when  derived  from  turf 
alone)  produces  at  first  a  grayish  brown,  but  eventually  a 
black  soil.  Luster  occurs  in  connection  with  color,  only 
in  instances  where  a  moist  clay  has  been  overturned  by  a 
polished  plow  or  other  smooth  metallic  substance.  When 
such  polished  surfaces  occur  on  the  soil,  as  it  is  being 
plowed,  they  are  unmistakable  evidence  of  comparative 
nonproductiveness,  because  they  indicate  a  want  of  humus 
and  porosity.  Soils  in  which  mica,  or  small  shining  par- 
ticles, abound,  is  generally  not  of  good  quality. 

The  color  is  of  great  importance  in  practical  agricul- 
ture, from  the  well-known  fact,  that  dark  colors  always 
retain  the  heat  from  the  sun  much  longer  than  light 
colored  ones. 

Dark  soils  are  generally  acknowledged  to  be  more  pro- 
ductive than  light  ones — but  this  fertility  is  due  to  other 
causes,  perhaps,  in  as  great  degree,  as  to  the  color — they 
generally  contain  humus,  or  at  least  some  organic  matter. 
If,  then,  we  assume  the  importance  of  the  color  of  the 
soil  as  a  fixed  fact,  and  as  a  condition  having  an  influence 
on  temperature,  we  then  have  some  data  from  which  the 
amelioration  or  improvement  in  a  physical  aspect  is  to  be 
determined. 

Experience  has  taught  that  coarse  dark  particles  of  soil 
retain  warmth  longer  than  fine  particles;  hence,  intelligent 


PROPERTIES   OF   SOILS.  45 

gardeners  often  mix  muck,  fine  coal,  bonedust,  etc.,  with 
some  calcareous  soil,  and  distribute  it  among  the  soil  in 
the  hotbeds,  and  between  the  grapevines,  when  they  wish 
to  force  fruits  and  fit  them  early  for  market.  Sometimes 
they  strew  bits  of  slate  around  the  plant2 — "  this  is  mainly 
practiced  on  the  banks  of  the  Moselle,  Nahe,  Maas  and 
the  Rhine."  l  On  a  dark  soil  the  vine  always  becomes 
more  juicy,  and  contains  more  saccharine  matter  than  on 
light  soils  in  the  same  situation  in  all  other  respects. 

Numerous  experiments  might  be  cited  to  prove  that  the 
color  of  the  soil  varies  the  temperature  nearly  fifty  per 
cent.  For  example :  if  a  calcareous  clay  soil  is  placed  in 
a  white  flower  pot,  and  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun,  it 
will  increase  sixteen  degrees  only  in  temperature,  while 
the  same  soil  in  a  black  pot  by  the  side  of  it,  will  have  in- 
creased twenty-four  degrees.  Gerardin  asserts  that  the 
period  of  ripening  potatoes  is  varied  from  eight  to  four- 
teen days,  by  the  color  of  the  soil.  In  proof  of  this,  he 
planted,  at  the  same  time,  an  equal  number  of  varieties 
in  different  soils,  and  found  that  in  white  clay  sixteen  va- 
rieties; in  yellow  clay,  nineteen;  in  whitish  sandy  soil, 
twenty,  but  in  dark  humus  soil,  twenty-six  varieties,  had 
fully  ripened  at  the  same  time. 

As  the  density  or  compactness  of  soil  is  differently  un- 
derstood by  different  parties,  we  shall  endeavor  to  be  as 
explicit  as  possible  on  this  point.  Generally,  by  density 
or  heaviness,  is  understood  the  amount  of  pressure  which 
one  body  exerts  on  another,  or  in  other  words,  density 
and  specific  gravity  are  regarded  as  synonymous.  But 
in  agricultural  literature,  heaviness  is  rather  synony- 
mous with  compactness  or  cohesiveness,  than  with  weight. 
By  a  heavy  soil,  is  meant  one  that  is  difficult  to  work,  on 

1  Yager's  Bodenkunde. 


46  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

account  of  its  adhesiveness  ;  the  term  is  really  applicable 
to  clay  soils  only,  because  they  are  capable  of  retaining 
a  large  amount  of  water,  and  because  clay,  of  itself,  is 
comparatively  heavy;  but,  at  the  same  time,  a  sandy  soil 
is  termed  a  light  soil,  although  its  specific  gravity  is 
greater  than  that  of  the  clay.  Practically,  the  specific 
gravity  of  a  soil  is  of  little  importance,  During  a  rise  of 
waters,  the  sandy  particles  always  settle  at  the  bottom, 
while  the  really  fertile  portions  are  deposited  on  the 
top  of  the  ground  as  the  water  recedes. 

As  a  general  thing,  a  soil  of  great  specific  gravity  is 
porous,  while  those  really  lighter,  by  weight,  when  dried, 
are  the  heaviest  to  work.  From  the  foregoing,  it  will  be 
observed  that  cohesion  is  of  much  more  importance  than 
specific  gravity.  As  the  soil  is  composed  of  many  par- 
ticles of  different  substances,  it  will  either  be  tenacious 
or  mellow,  compact  or  loose,  in  proportion  as  one  or  seve- 
ral of  the  component  parts  predominate;  therefore,  as 
soils  are  composed  of  almost  all  possible  proportions  of 
these  several  elements,  soils  will  be  found  of  all  corres- 
ponding degrees  of  tenacity  or  porosity — hence,  having 
u  knowledge  of  the  combining  elements  to  produce  a  soil, 
vve  term  a  tenacious  soil,  a  heavy  one,  and  a  mellow  or 
porous  one,  a  light  one  without  any  regard  to  its  actual 
specific  gravity. 

The  greatest  degree  of  cohesion  is  termed  tenacious, 
strong,  or  impervious.  Thus,  we  say  a  tenacious  clay,  a 
•strong  clay,  or  an  impervious  clay.  A  compact  soil  is  one 
in  which  the  particles  adhere  so  strongly  to  each  other  as 
to  be  difficult  of  separation,  and  that  can  not  be  crumbled 
by  the  fingers.  A  tough  soil  is  always  a  compact  one  when 
dry  •  a  tough  soil  is  difficult  to  till  when  wet  or  moist,  and 
no  less  difficult  when  dry.  A  mellow  soil  is  one  that  will 
crumble  upon  slight  pressure  in  the  hand.  Clay  soils  may 


PROPERTIES   OP   SOILS. 


47 


be  made  mellow  by  the  application  of  sand,  humus,  and  by 
frosts  in  the  course  of  cultivation,  but  they  are  never  mel- 
low without  the  aid  of  man. 

The  cohesion  of  the  soil  depends  entirely  upon  the 
amount  of  clay  incorporated  with  it — the  larger  the  pro- 
portion of  clay  is.  the  more  cohesive  will  the  soil  be,  and 
the  more  sand  it  contains,  the  mellower  it  will  be.  Ac- 
cording to  Schuebler's  experiments,  the  following  named 
soils  exhibited  the  degree  of  tenacity  or  cohesion  placed 
in  the  corresponding  columns : 


Description  of  soil. 

Degrees  of 
cohesion. 

Cohesion  according 
to  weight. 

Pure  clay,                                          •. 

100. 

24. 

Pipe  clay,        -         "  ^  - 

83.3 

19. 

Brickmakers'  clay,          .».          •-, 

68.8 

15.3 

Common  clay, 

57.3 

13.2 

Loamy  clay,          -             -         "•"•-    • 

33. 

7.5 

Slaty  marl,     -            -         .  --  -_;    >  / 

23. 

5.2 

Carbonate  of  magnesia,   - 

11.5 

2.3 

Humus,                         -            -       .:•'--. 

8.7 

1.5 

Plaster  of  Paris,  - 

7.3 

1.2 

Fine  calcareous  soil,  - 

5. 

1. 

Sand,         -            -            - 

0. 

0. 

The  more  cohesive  a  soil  is,  the  greater  is  its  liability 
to  be  adhesive  in  a  moist  state.  This  adhesion  often  ren- 
ders an  otherwise  productive  soil  very  undesirable,  on  ac- 
count of  the  resistance  it  offers  in  tillage.  Some  German 
writer,  whose  name  I  can  not  ascertain,  instituted  a  series 
of  experiments  to  determine  the  positive  as  well  as  com- 
parative amount  of  "  adhesive  resistance"  to  implements 
generally  employed  in  agriculture,  the  results  of  which 
are  embodied  in  the  following  table  : 


48 


LAND   DRAINAGE. 


Degree  of  adhesive  resistance  to  agri- 

Moist soils. 

cultural  implements  exerted  by  a  su- 
perficial square  foot,  on 

Iron. 

Wood. 

Pure  white  clay,    - 

27. 

29.2 

Pipe  clay, 

17.2 

18.9 

Pine  calcareous  earth, 

14.3 

15.6 

Gypseous  earth, 

10.7 

11.8 

Brickmakers'  clay, 

10.6 

11.4 

Humus, 

8.8 

9.4 

Common  clay, 

7.9 

8.9 

Loamy  clay,    - 

5.8 

6.4 

Magnesian  earth, 

5.8 

7.1 

Slaty  marl, 

4.9 

5.5 

Lime  sand, 

4.1 

4.4 

Quartz  sand,   - 

3.8 

4.3 

Many  other  properties  are  connected  with  the  cohesive- 
ness  of  the  soil,  such  as  the  permeability  of  water,  capil- 
lary attraction  and  retention  of  moisture,  penetrability  of 
the  atmosphere,  retention  of  warmth,  etc. 

A  cohesive  or  compact  soil  is,  in  consequence  of  its 
tenacity  and  retention  of  moisture,  always  cool  or  cold, 
because,  in  the  first  place,  it  is  impermeable  to  the  air,  and 
does  not  absorb  and  retain  the  warmth  of  the  sun,  but 
loses  its  moisture  through  evaporation  only ;  and  it  is  a 
well-known  fact,  that  evaporation  is  a  cooling  process. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  mellow  soil  is  warm,  because  it  does 
not  retain  moisture,  and  is  not  cooled  by  evaporation. 

A  cohesive  soil  contracts  or  shrinks  when  dried.  This 
contraction  causes  wide  and  sometimes  very  deep  fissures 
or  cracks,  while  a  mellow  soil  does  not  perceptibly  either 
contract  or  expand,  but  settles  down  and  becomes  more 
compact.  A  pure  humus  soil  contracts  as  much  if  not 
more  than  clay,  during  a  season  of  drought,  but  is  held 
together  in  masses  by  vegetable  fibers,  with  which  it  is 
interspersed ;  but  whenever  sand  is  mixed  with  humus,  it 
ceases  to  contract.  The  best  and  cheapest  method  of 
ameliorating  a  clay  soil  is  to  underdrain,  and  expose  it  as 


PROPERTIES   OF   SOILS.  49 

thoroughly  as  possible  to  the  action  of  frost.  For  this 
reason  it  should  be  plowed  into  ridges,  even  if  very  clod- 
dy, in  the  fall,  so  that  the  frost  may  have  the  largest  pos- 
sible amount  to  operate  on,  and  by  spring  it  will  be  found 
to  be  much  ameliorated. 

Retentiveness  of  Moisture. — The  capacity  to  retain  moist- 
ure and  exclude  the  permeation  of  the  atmosphere  de- 
pends entirely  upon  the  cohesiveness  of  the  soil.  A  co- 
hesive soil  is  almost  impervious,  while  a  mellow  soil  is 
always  porous.  Pure  clay  will  retain  water  until  it  is  ex- 
hausted by  evaporation,  while  pure  sand  is  so  porous  that 
it  may  be  said  to  swallow  the  water.  Neither  of  these  ex- 
tremes is  a  desirable  quality,  but  a  medium  or  mean  be- 
tween the  two  is  really  what  is  requisite.  It  is  always 
better  to  have  a  soil  too  porous  than  to  have  one  too  com- 
pact. A  well-tilled  soil  is  seldom  so  compact  as  to  retain 
moisture  in  quantities  to  act  injuriously  upon  vegetation. 
Every  effort,  therefore,  which  will  remove  surplus  moist- 
ure, or  such  moisture  as  is  in  actual  excess  of  the  absolute 
amount  required  for  vegetation,  is  an  effort  to  assist  nature, 
and  consequently  is  in  the  right  direction. 

By  porosity  of  the  soil,  must  be  understood  not  merely 
its  adaptation  to  permit  water  to  filter  through  it,  but  also 
the  capacity  to  draw  moisture  from  the  subsoil  by  or 
through  capillary  attraction.  It  is  a  well-known  fact,  that 
mellow  soils  are,  even  in  times  of  drought,  more  moist 
than  tenacious  or  compact  soils  are ;  they  absorb  moisture 
from  below,  on  the  same  principle  that  the  sponge  absorbs 
and  elevates  moisture.  Even  a  very  sandy  soil,  resting 
on  an  impervious  or  tenacious  subsoil,  is  better  adapted 
for  crops  during  a  drought  than  a  heavy  clay  soil,  solely 
on  account  of  its  capillary  capacity. 

But  an  essential  quality  of  a  good  soil  is,  that  while  it 
6 


50 


LAND    DRAINAGE. 


is  porous  enough  to  filter  the  surface  water,  and  possesses 
a  proper  capillary  capacity,  that  it  at  the  same  time  pos- 
sesses another  important  quality,  namely,  the  retention 
of  moisture.  This  latter  quality  appears  to  depend  upon 
the  decomposition  and  comminution  of  the  mineral  sub- 
stances, and  the  decay  of  organic  materials  of  which  the 
soil  is  composed.  Every  kind  or  quality  of  soil  will  ab- 
sorb or  imbibe  a  certain  amount  of  moisture,  until  it  is 
completely  saturated,  and  the  remainder  will  drip  or  flow 
away.  The  amount  imbibed  is  generally  less  than  the 
weight  of  a  given  quantity  of  the  soil. 

Schuebler,  it  appears,  took  a  pound  of  the  various  kinds 
of  soil,  after  they  were  thoroughly  dried,  then  saturated 
them  with  water  and  weighed  them ;  the  excess  of  weight 
when  saturated  over  the  weight  when  dry,  of  course,  would 
give  the  capacity  of  retaining  moisture.  Thus,  if  a  pound 
of  soil  when  dry  weighed  a  pound,  but  a  pound  and  a  half 
when  saturated,  it  is  very  evident  the  absorbing  capacity 
of  that  soil  is  50  per  cent.  From  Schuebler's  experiments 
we  have  compiled  the  following  table  : 


"i  s  > 

•=  =  ,, 

Soils. 

-1*3   C4 

sl§ 

Soils. 

it! 

B  S  3- 

rt-«^  2. 

•        s 

3 

03 

era 

Quartz  sand,     - 

25 

Common  soil  (what  kind?) 

52 

Gypseous  soil, 

27 

Pipe  clay, 

61 

Lime  sand, 

29 

Pure  clay, 

70 

Slaty  marl, 

34 

Fine  calcareous  earth, 

85 

Loamy  clay, 

40 

Fullers'  earth, 

87 

Calcareous  soil, 

47 

Humus, 

181 

Bookmakers'  clay, 

50 

Fine  magnesia, 

256 

This  table  presents  several  very  striking  facts.  In  the 
first  place,  it  shows  that  coarse  particles,  like  sand,  retain 
less  moisture  than  the  same  material  when  finely  commi- 
nuted. For  example,  the  lime,  when  reduced  to  particles 
of  the  size  of  common  sand,  will  retain  29  per  cent,  only 


PROPERTIES    OE    SOILS. 


51 


of  moisture ;  while  a  limy  soil  (clay  and  lime)  will  retain  47 
per  cent.,  and  the  limy  soil,  reduced  to  powder,  will  retain 
85  per  cent.  Now,  as  underdraining  and  culture  reduce 
the  particles  of  soil,  it  is  very  evident  that  the  longer  soils 
are  cultivated  the  greater  will  be  their  retentive  capacity. 

Light  clay  soils  appear  the  best  adapted  to  retain  moist- 
ure, while  at  the  same  time  they  appear  to  have  a  more 
desirable  kind  of  porosity  than  either  sand  or  heavy  clay. 
Humus  absorbs  the  largest  proportion  of  water,  but  when 
it  parts  with  it  not  unfrequently  becomes  so  dry  that  it 
floats  on  the  water ;  it  is  not  an  active  absorber. 

Another  quality  which  is  possessed  by  soils,  and  proper 
to  be  mentioned  here,  is  the  degree  of  rapidity  with  which 
soils  part  with  the  imbibed  moisture.  It  is  very  evident 
that  the  sand  will  part  with  its  25  per  cent.,  in  the  form 
either  of  a  filtration  or  an  evaporation,  much  sooner  than 
brickmakers'  clay  will,  with  its  50  per  cent.,  or  humus  its 
181  per  cent.  To  determine  this  point  precisely,  Schue- 
bler  exposed  soils  containing  100  parts  of  water  to  a  heat 
of  66°  F.,  during  a  period  of  four  hours.  He  found  the 
water  in 


Evapo- 
rated. 
Per  cent. 

Evapo- 
rated. 
Per  cent. 

Quartz  sand, 
Lime  sand, 
Gypseous  earth, 
Slaty  marl, 
Loamy  clay, 
Brickmakers'  clay, 
Pipe  clay, 

88.4 
75.9 
71.7 
68.8 
52. 
45.7 
34.9 

Common  soil  (what  kind?) 
Pure  clay,    - 
Fine  calcareous  soil, 
Garden  soil  (what  kind?) 
Humus, 
Magnesia,    - 

32. 
31.9 
28.0 
24.3 
20.5 
10.8 

As  a  laboratory  experiment,  this  table  may  be  very  val- 
uable, but  in  practical  agriculture  we  do  not  consider  it 
very  reliable,  or  of  any  absolute  value.  Every  one  knows 
that  the  exposure  toward  the  north  or  south,  east  or  west, 
would  materially  affect  the  retentive  quality,  so  far  as 


0-J  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

evaporation  by  the  sun's  rays  is  concerned;  and  equally 
as  much  would  they  be  affected  by  the  winds.  A  sharp 
north-west  wind  might  "dry  up"  a  clay  soil  as  much  as 
the  sun  would  dry  up  a  humus  soil.  Then,  too,  if  fur- 
rows are  plowed  deep  and  narrow,  more  surface  will  be 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  elements  than  if  plowed  wide 
and  shallow.  A  sandy  soil,  covered  with  a  mat  of  grass, 
would  not  evaporate  moisture  as  rapidly  as  an  exposed 
clay  would. 

The  property  of  expansion  and  contraction  of  soils  is 
intimately  connected  with  the  capacity  of  absorbing  and 
retaining  moisture.  Some  soils,  when  fully  saturated,  do 
not  expand  a  particle,  while  others  expand  very  much ; 
those  which  expand  the  most  when  saturated,  also  con- 
tract the  most  when  the  moisture  is  exhausted.  The  com- 
parative expansive  or  contractive  capacity  of  soils  may 
be  very  readily  determined  in  the  following  manner :  take 
a  common  brickmaker's  mold,  and  fill  it  with-  thoroughly 
saturated  soil,  as  compactly  as  possible,  with  the  hand, 
then  expose  it  either  for  days  in  unobstructed  sunshine,  or 
else  expose  it  to  artificial  heat,  not  exceeding  212°  Fahren- 
heit ;  when  the  soil  is  thoroughly  dried,  it  will  be  found — 
according  to  the  kind  employed — to  have  shrunk  more  or 
less.  Schuebler's  investigations  indicated  that 


1000  parts  of 

Will  contract. 

1000  parts  of 

Will  contract. 

Parts. 

Parts. 

Lime  or  quartz  sand, 

0. 

Pipe  clay, 

314. 

Calcareous  soil, 

50. 

Carbonate  of  magnesia, 

154. 

Loamy  clay, 

60. 

Pure  ulsiy, 

183. 

Brickmakers'  clay,     - 

85. 

Humus, 

200. 

Slaty  marl, 

95. 

These  experiments  confirm  repeated  observations,  that 
a  soil  in  which  clay  predominates  always  contracts,  and 


PROPERTIES   OF   SOILS. 


53 


becomes  full  of  fissures  or  cracks,  when  it  is  perfectly 
dry ;  but  that  in  sandy  soil  no  such  change  takes  place. 
But  every  day's  experience  contradicts  the  statement  rel- 
ative to  humus  in  the  above  table ;  it  is  a  well  known  fact, 
that  humus  or  turf  never  cracks,  even  in  the  hottest  and 
driest  weather.  There  is  no  doubt  that  cracking  is  in  a 
very  great  degree  due  to  the  amount  of  moisture  contained, 
and  the  rapidity  with  which  it  is  evaporated.  The  same 
soil  will  contain  many  more  fissues,  if  dried  suddenly,  than 
if  dried  slowly. 

Another  property  inherent  in  soils  must  not  be  omitted, 
namely:  the  capability  of  absorbing  moisture  from  the 
atmosphere.  This  property  manifestly  is  dependent  on 
the  porosity  of  the  soil ;  for  it  is  very  evident  that  a  soil 
which  readily  absorbs  a  rain  fall,  will  also  absorb  moisture 
when  it  is  presented  in  the  form  of  fog  or  dew,  or  even 
from  the  atmosphere  direct.  We  must  again  refer  to 
Schuebler  to  ascertain  the  degree  in  which  this  property 
is  possessed  by  the  various  soils.  He  took  1,000  grains 
of  dried  soil  of  each  kind,  and  spread  each  kind  respect- 
ively on  a  surface  of  50  inches,  and  found  that 


Absorbed  in 

12  hours. 

24  hours. 

48  hours. 

72  hours. 

Grains. 

Grains. 

Grains. 

Grains. 

Quartz  sand,    - 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Gypseous  earth,     - 
Lime  sand, 

1 

2 

1 
3 

1 

3 

1 
3 

Common  soil  (what  kind?) 

16 

22 

23 

23 

Loamy  clay,     - 

21 

26 

28 

28 

Slaty  marl, 

24 

29 

32 

33 

Brickmakers'  clay, 

25 

30 

34 

35 

Fine  calcareous  earth, 

26 

11 

35 

35 

Pipe  clay, 

30 

36 

40 

41 

Garden   soil,  having   7   per 
ce%t.  humus, 

35 

45 

50 

52 

Pure  clay, 

37 

42 

43 

49 

Fine  magnesia, 

69 

76 

80 

82 

Humus, 

80 

97 

110 

120 

54  LAXD   DRAINAGE. 

It  will  be  seen  at  a  glance  that  the  greatest  proportion 
of  the  moisture  is  absorbed  during  the  first  twelve  hours. 
Soils  in  the  fields  seldom,  if  ever,  become  so  thoroughly 
dried  as  those  employed  in  Schuebler's  experiments ;  hence 
the  absorption  will  necessarily  be  much  less  than  the  pro- 
portion stated  in  the  table.  The  experiments  simply  con- 
firm every  day's  observations,  that  the  absorbing  powers 
of  clay  are  increased  by  the  addition  of  sand;  lout  practice 
does  not  confirm  the  statement  with  regard  to  humus.  It 
is  a  well  known  fact,  that  a  piece  of  humus,  so  dry 
that  it  will  float,  may  lie  in  a  damp  cellar,  or  other  moist 
place,  for  months,  without  absorbing  a  perceptible  amount 
of  moisture. 

Porosity  is,  after  all,  of  more  importance  than  the  prop- 
erty of  absorbing  a  large  quantity  of  moisture,  because 
in  a  porous  soil  moisture  can  penetrate  to  a  greater  ex- 
tent. Although  quartz  sand  does  not  absorb  any  appre- 
ciable amount  of  moisture,  it  is  a  well  ascertained  fact  that 
a  moist  atmosphere  is  productive  of  good  results  on  a 
sandy  soil ;  plants  flourish  and  grow  well,  while  under  the 
same  conditions  they  very  soon  die  away  in  a  heavy  clay. 
What  practical  benefit  is  then  to  be  derived  from  the  great 
absorbing  power  of  clay,  if  the  moisure  is  confined  to  the 
surface  only;  while  in  sand,  with  no  power  of  absorption, 
the  particles  of  moisture  can  permeate  everywhere?  But 
it  is  asserted  that  the  air  absorbs  more  moisture  from  the 
soil  than  it  imparts  to  it ;  however  true  this  assertion  may 
be,  the  advantages  to  growing  crops  of  moisture  imparted 
to  the  soil  from  the  atmosphere,  is  acknowledged  by  every 
intelligent  and  observing  agriculturist. 

The  capacity  of  soils  to  absorb  gaseous  elements  from 
the  atmosphere,  is  one  of  the  most  important  properties. 
The  fertilizing  properties  of  gaseous  elements  are  so  well 
known,  and  generally  acknowledged,  as  not  to  require  any 


PROPERTIES   OP   SOILS.  55 

illustration  or  argument ;  the  only  object  really  accom- 
plished by  plowing  is,  a  loosening  of  the  soil,  so  as  to 
permit  the  permeation  of  the  atmosphere,  and  conse- 
quently absorption  of  gases  and  moisture  from  it  by  the 
soil.  The  most  important,  as  well  as  most  universal  of 
these  gases  is  oxygen ;  it  combines  chemically  with  moist 
(never  with  dried)  soil,  as  well  as  it  combines  physically 
or  mechanically  with  hydrogen  to  form  water.  "  Sprout- 
ing," or  germination,  would  be  utterly  impossible  without 
oxygen;  hence,  seeds  germinate  much  more  readily  in  a 
properly-formed  seed-bed — that  is,  where  the  soil  has 
been  reduced  to  mellowness  and  ordinarily  well  pulverized, 
than  in  a  soil  not  so  prepared.  In  proof  of  this  assertion, 
we  need  only  refer  to  the  fact  that,  in  forests,  seeds  of  in- 
digenous plants  frequently  become  so  completely  excluded 
from  the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  that,  when  again  ex- 
posed to  it,  after  a  lapse  of  many  years,  they  at  once  germ- 
inate and  grow. 

Subsoils,  or  such  soils  as  lie  beneath  the  surface  and 
beyond  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere,  are  termed 
"  dead"  or  "ivild"  soils,  and  are,  as  a  matter  of  course, 
unproductive.  But  as  soon  as  they  are  exposed  to  atmos- 
pheric influences,  and  especially  tha  action  of  the  frost, 
they  become  very  productive.  Some  soils  possess  the 
property  of  absorbing  gases  in  a  much  greater  degree 
than  others;  blue  clay,  or  hard  pan,  for  instance,  does 
not  possess  this  property  in  any  very  considerable  degree  : 
hence,  it  must  be  exposed  a  very  long  time  to  atmospheric 
influences  before  it  becomes  fertile.  We  must  again  refer 
to  Schuebler's  experiments  for  the  precise  degrees  in 
which  the  different  soils  possess  the  property. 


56 


LAND   DRAINAGE. 


Absorbs. 

Absorbs. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

While  humus,  - 

20 

Clay  slate, 

11 

Rich  garden  soil,  - 

18 

Brickmakers'  clay, 

11 

Magnesia, 

17 

Fine  calcareous  soil, 

10 

(rood  arable  soil,   - 

16 

Yellow  clay,    - 

9 

Pure  clay, 

15 

Lime  sand, 

5 

Pipe  clay,  - 

13 

Gypseous  earth, 

2 

Slaty  marl, 

13 

Quartz  sand, 

1 

No  less  important  than  any  of  the  qualities  already 
enumerated,  is  the  property  of  absorbing  and  retaining 
warmth.  This  property  depends  entirely  upon  the  color, 
compactness,  porosity,  moisture,  and  the  exposure  to  the 
rays  of  the  sun.  We  have  already  referred  to  the  fact 
that  dark  soils  absorb  and  retain  the  sun's  rays,  while 
light  colored  soil  reflect  without  absorbing  them.  In  the 
course  of  the  succeeding  chapters,  we  shall  fully  discuss 
the  effects  of  the  absorption  of  warmth,  and  its  conse- 
quences ;  nothing  further  need  be  remarked  here,  than  to 
refer  to  Schuebler's  experiments  for  the  degrees  or  pro- 
portion in  which  the  various  soils  possess  the  property  of 
absorbing  and  retaining  heat. 


Soils. 

Ketentive    j 

Soils. 

Retentive 

capacity. 

capacity. 

Lime  sand, 

100 

Arable  soil  (what  kind?) 

70 

Slaty  marl, 

95 

Pipe  clay, 

68 

Quartz  sand,     - 

95 

•Pure  clay, 

66 

itard    Pan,    or     "Blue 

Garden  soil  (what  kind  ?) 

64 

clay," 

76 

Fine  calcareous  earth, 

61 

Gypseous  earths,    - 

73 

Huuiu?, 

49 

Brickmakers'  clay, 

71 

Fine  magnesian  soil,  - 

38 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  a  limy  or  sandy  soil  is 
much  warmer  soil  than  the  clays  :  hence,  a  loamy  soil, 
having  a  proper  admixture  of  sand,  is  warmer  than  a  clay 
soil. 


PROPERTIES   OF   SOILS.  57 

Many  persons  suppose  that  the  soil  differs  from  the 
subsoil,  in  no  other  respect  than  that  the  soil  has  been 
cultivated,  and  has  in  consequence  assumed  a  more  po- 
rous character.  While  this  in  some  cases  may  be  correct, 
it  can  by  no  means  be  adopted  as  a  rule.  The  subsoil, 
as  a  general  thing,  is  a  distinct  geological  formation  from 
the  soil  itself — the  soil  may  be  a  sandy  loam,  while  the 
subsoil  is  an  impervious  clay — or  the  soil  may  be  a  loam, 
while  the  subsoil  is  gravel  and  sand.  Where  the  subsoil 
is  gravelly  or  sandy,  as  a  general  thing,  drainage  is  neces- 
sary ;  yet,  there  are  cases,  which  we  will  discuss  in  the 
proper  place,  where  gravelly  subsoils  require  drainage  as 
imperatively  as  clayey  ones  do.  If  the  subsoil  were 
always  as  porous  as  the  cultivated  soil,  there  would  be 
less  occasion  for  thorough  drainage,  but  as  this  is  not  the 
case,  drainage  becomes  necessary  if  not  indispensable. 

The  crust  of  the  earth  is  composed  of  rocks,  or  of  the 
material  which  once  was  rock,  disposed  in  stata,  one  above 
the  other,  like  the  concentric  peels  of  an  onion,  but  the 
regularity  of  stratification  has,  in  many  places,  been  in- 
terrupted by  earthquakes  and  volcanic  action.1 

A  a  bode 


[Fio.  2.] 

In  passing  over  a  region  of  country  from  A  to  e,  Fig. 
2,  we  may  find  at  A,  a  deposit  of  shale,  but  it  soon  dis- 

l  Volcanic  forces  have  operated  from  beneath  upon  most  of  the  older 
rocks,  whereby  they  have  been  bent  upward.  The  weight  of  the  ocean, 
drift,  etc.,  has  bent  them  downward ;  gravity  and  other  agencies  more  lo- 
cal, have  produced  a  lateral  pressure,  especially  when  the  strata  were  highly 
inclined ;  and  these  various  agencies  will  account  for  nearly  every  case  of 
flexure,  not  only  of  the  laminae,  but  of  the  beds  also. — Hitchcock's  Elemen- 
tary Geology,  page  18. 


58 


LAND   DRAINAGE. 


appears,  and  we  find  we  are  traveling  on  limestone  as  at 
a,  then  we  find  the  limestone  disappearing,  and  we  are 
on  a  heavy  clay ;  at  b  we  find  ourselves  on  a  sandstone 
formation,  then  again  on  a  heavy  clay  ;  then  at  c  we  find  it 
gravelly,  then  shale,  perhaps,  and  again  a  clay  formation 
at  d.  The  soil  which  may  be  represented  by  a  line  just 
above  the  upper  edge  of  these  formations,  as  from  A  to  I, 
is,  perhaps,  a  mixture  of  all  the  rocks  on  which  it  rests, 
and  demonstrates,  very  clearly,  why  the  subsoil  may  be 
different  at  different  points,  under  the  same  kind  of  soil, 
as-  at  A  and  &,  or  b  and  c.  A  farm  situated  at  c,  would 
not  require  any  drainage ;  while  one  situated  between  a 
and  b,  would  not  be  of  any  great  value  without  it. 


[FiG.   3.] 

In  the  annexed  Fig.  3,  A  and  B,  represent  portions  of 
strata  elevated  by  volcanic  action,  forming  a  basin,  B  3/, 
in  which  the  strata,  1  and  2,  have  subsequently  been 
formed.  Now,  suppose  1  to  represent  a  deposit  of  gravel, 
2  a  deposit  or  formation  of  blue  or  yellow  clay,  3  a  lime 
rock,  and  4  a  sandstone  strata.  The  rains  falling  at  I> 
and  at/,  will  readily  percolate  toward  the  center  of  the 
basin,  because  the  strata  is  porous,  while  the  rains  from  a 
to  d  will  penetrate  the  earth  very  slowly.  A  field  situ- 
ated at  B,  although  actually  lower  than  one  at  d,  may, 
nevertheless,  be  much  drier,  and  in  a  workable  condition, 
while  the  one  situated  at  c?,  is  saturated  with  moisture. 
All  the  rain  falling  between  a  and  d,  except  that  which 
flows  from  the  surface  and  that  evaporated,  vail  penetrate 


PKOPERTIES   OF   SOILS.  59 

until  it  reaches  the  limestone  strata,  3,  which  is  imper- 
vious, and  of  course,  arrests  its  further  progress — the  re- 
sult is,  that  at  b  a  swamp  is  formed  from  the  excess  of 
water  which  can  find  no  outlet  or  means  of  escape. 

This  same  figure  may  serve  to  illustrate  the  principle 
of  artesian  wells.  Strata  No.  4,  being  porous,  is  con- 
stantly saturated  with  water,  and  is  what  is  termed  a 
water  bearing  rock.  Now,  if  the  strata  4  be  penetrated 
at  a  or  6,  the  pressure  from /will  cause  the  water  to  rise 
at  a  or  6,  to  the  same  level  of  /;  at  c,  the  water  would 
rise  to  the  level  of  the  earth  only,  being  in  the  center  of 
the  basin,  the  water  would  not  rise  higher  than  the  out- 
crop of  the  strata,  as  at  B ;  at  d,  it  would  not  rise  to  the 
surface,  and  at  1  it  would  remain  at  some  distance  below 
the  surface. 


CHAPTER     II. 


HOW    DRAINAGE    OPERATES— HOW    IT    AFFECTS    THE 

SOIL. 

IT  would  be  no  difficult  matter  to  collect  a  volume  of 
experiments,  made  in  laboratories  and  elsewhere,  which 
were  made  to  ascertain  the  precise  workings  of  drainage. 
One  of  the  most  cheap,  simple,  and  at  the  same  time  most 
satisfactory  experiments,  to  determine  the  advantage  of 
draining,  is  the  following  :  Take  two  ordinary  earthen- 
ware flowerpots,  the  one  having  a  hole  or  perforation  in 
the  bottom,  and  the  other  to  be  without  any  orifice  in 
either  sides  or  bottom.  Fill  both  with  precisely  the  same 
quantity  and  quality  of  soil,  and  plant  in  each,  either 
growing  plants  or  seeds  of  any  ordinary  cultivated  plants. 
The  perforated  pot  will  represent  a  drained  soil,  while 
the  other  represents  an  undrained  one.  Give  to  both  the 
same  exposure,  and  the  same  quantity  of  water.  If  seeds 
are  sown  in  both,  those  in  the  perforated  pot  will  germin- 
ate the  soonest,  and  the  plants  become  the  thriftiest  and 
hardiest ;  sometimes,  though  seldom,  the  plants  in  the 
other  pot  will  not  germinate  at  all ;  but  generally,  they 
do  germinate,  although  they  produce  only  sickly  and  slen- 
der plants.  In  this  manner,  the  effect  of  drainage  is  com- 
pletely demonstrated. 

If  both  flowerpots  are  placed  in  earthen  saucers  or 
dishes,  and  water  poured  in  the  dishes,  that  pot  having 
the  perforation  will  absorb  the  water  by  capillary  at- 
traction— the  plant  will  receive  its  due  proportion,  and 
thrive;  while  the  unperforated  pot  will  not  absorb  any 
water,  and  the  plant  will  suffer  from  drought;  thus  show- 


HOW   DRAINAGE   AFFECTS    THE   SOIL. 


61 


ing  the  effect  or  benefit  of  drainage  in  times  of  drought. 
But  the  best  method  of  demonstrating  the  manner  in 
which  drainage  operates,  is  by  the  following  apparatus : 


[Fio  4.] 

Fill  a  glass  vessel,  E,  with  moistened  soil,  to  the  hight 
of  six  or  more  inches — the  bottom  of  the  vessel  being 
provided  with  a  stop-cock,  K,  which  should  penetrate 
several  inches  into  the  soil,  so  as  to  represent  a  pipe-tile 
as  nearly  as  possible.  The  mouth  of  the  vessel,  E,  should 
be  firmly  closed  with  a  cork,  C,  through  which  is  inserted 
a  tube,  whose  upper  portion  is  a,  funnel,  A,  provided  with 
a  stop-cock,  B.  This  tube  is  for  the  purpose  of  introduc- 
ing water  on  the  soil  within ;  and  the  cock,  B,  to  prevent 
the  introduction  of  air  from  that  source,  after  sufficient 
water  has  been  introduced.  The  other  tube  which  passes 
through  the  cork,  C,  is  luted  to  another  tube  at  D.  This 
last  is  inserted  at  G,  into  the  vessel,  I,  which  is  partially 
filled  with  water ;  but  the  tube,  Gr,  should  not  be  inserted 
so  deep  as  to  touch  the  water.  The  vessel,  I,  is  provided 
with  three  orifices  or  openings  ;  through  one  of  these 
orifices  a  tube  is  inserted  at  F,  to  admit  air,  in  such  a 
manner,  however,  as  to  compel  it  to  pass  through  the 
water — the  air  being  lighter  than  the  water,  will,  of  course. 


62  LAND    DHAINAGE. 

rise  through  it  in  the  form  of  bubbles  ;  or  rather,  when 
bubbles  are  rising  through  the  water,  it  is  an  indication 
that  air  is  entering  through  the  tube,  F,  from  without. 
The  orifice  of  the  stop- cock,  K,  should  be  kept  under 
water  in  the  vessel,  J.  Having  completed  these  arrange- 
ments, close  the  stop-cock,  K,  and  open  the  one,  B,  and 
through  the  funnel,  A,  introduce  as  much  water  as  would 

O  '  ' 

probably  fall  during  an  ordinary  shower.  It  will  be  ob- 
served, that  the  water  so  introduced  does  not  at  once  dis- 
appear, or  be  absorbed  by  the  soil,  but  remains  on  .the 
surface,  or  penetrates  very  slowly.  This  is  the  condition 
and  action  of  an  undrained  soil. 

Now,  to  represent  the  action  of  rain  on  drained  soil, 
open  the  stop-cock,  K,  and  bubbles  of  liberated  gas  will 
soon  be  seen  to  rise  in  the  vessel,  J;  these  bubbles  are 
liberated  gases  from  the  soil — those  who  have  analyzed 
these  gases,  state  that  a  large  amount  of  oxygen,  in  com- 
bination with  gases  deleterious  to  plants,  is  contained  in 
them ;  and  are,  therefore,  of  opinion,  that  less  oxygen  is 
found  in  soil  immediately  after  a  shower,  than  before — 
the  oxygen  being  restored  only  as  soon  as  evaporation 
takes  place.  While  the  gases  are  being  liberated  through 
K,  bubbles  will  be  seen  rising  in  the  water  in  I;  thus  it 
is  demonstrated  that  each  shower  furnishes  drained  soils 
with  new  oxygen.  As  soon  as  K  is  opened,  the  water 
which  was  on  the  surface  of  the  soil,  at  E,  sinks  at  once ; 
but  as  soon  as  it  is  being  discharged  at  K,  into  J,  the 
bubbles  cease,  or  nearly  so,  to  rise  in  I. 

A  belief  has  obtained,  that  drains  are  of  advantage  or 
beneficial  to  the  soil  only,  when  they  are  conducting  away 
the  surplus  waters  from  showers.  It  certainly  is  a  great 
advantage  to  the  plants  to  be  relieved  from  surplus  water, 
as  soon  as  possible,  but  it  is,  at  the  same  time,  no  less  an  ad- 
vantage to  be  supplied  with  new  oxygen,  and  to  have  tho 


HOW   DRAINAGE   AFFECTS   THE   SOIL.  63 

old  removed.  An  undrained  soil  can  not  make  these 
changes  in  its  gases,  for  the  benefit  of  the  plant,  as  well 
as  a  drained  soil.  This  aeration  of  the  soil  is  absolutely 
necessary  for  the  health  and  growth  of  plants.  Plowing 
is  nothing  more  or  less  than  aerating  the  soil;  and  every 
one  conversant  with  farming  operations,  is  well  aware, 
that  plants  grow  best  on  a  finely  pulverized  soil — that  is, 
in  other  words,  on  a  well  aerated  soil. 

Oxygen  is  no  less  essential  to  the  roots  of  plants,  than 
it  is  to  the  lungs  of  animals ;  but  if  the  oxygen  is  not 
changed,  the  result  is  very  unfavorable  to  the  plants. 
Every  rain  which  falls  on  a  porous  or  drained  soil,  brings 
not  only  new  solvents  of  the  inorganic  materials  which 
nourish  the  plants,  that  have  already  been  oxydized, 
and  thus  prepared  for  the  advent  of  another  rain,  but 
when  it  falls  on  an  undrained  or  impermeable  soil,  it  di- 
minishes the  amount  of  oxygen,  and  produces  permanent 
injury  to  the  plants,  by  the  excessive  amount  of  stagnant 
water,  and  by  lowering  the  temperature  for  a  longer 
period  than  is  consistent  with  the  health  of  the  plant. 

No  fear  need  be  entertained  that  any  clayey  or  loamy 
soil  can  be  over  drained ;  or,  in  other  words,  that  so  much 
moisture  may  be  drained  out  of  the  soil,  as  not  to  leave 
sufficient  remaining  for  the  use  of  any  plants  which  may 
appropriately  be  grown  in  the  soil. 

All  soils  have  what  is  termed  "  capillary  attraction" 
that  is,  the  power  to  suck  up,  or  elevate  to  the  surface 
mineral  matters  in  solution,  or  moisture  from  the  subsoil; 
and  the  finer  the  soil  is  pulverized,  the  stronger  the 
capillary  attraction.  In  proof  of  this  position,  the  fol- 
lowing, from  the  pen  of  J.  H.  Salisbury,  an  agricultural 
chemist  of  New  York,  is  here  inserted : 

"  From  numerous  observations  which  have  been  made  at  different 
times  on  the  peculiar  appearance  of  the  surface  of  soils,  clays,  etc., 


64 


LAND    DRAINAGE. 


during  the  warm  summer  months,  and  the  fact  that  they,  when 
covered  with  boards,  stones,  or  other  materials,  so  as  to  prevent  them 
from  supporting  vegetation,  become,  in  a  comparatively  short  time, 
much  more  productive  than  the  adjacent  uncovered  soil,  we  havo 
been  led  to  the  belief  that  the  soil  possessed  some  power  within  itself, 
aside  from  the  roots  of  plants,  of  elevating  soluble  materials  from 
deep  sources  to  the  surface.1 

"To  throw  some  light  upon  the  subject,  in  May,  1852, 1  sunk  threo 
boxes  into  the  soil — one  40  inches  deep;  another  28  inches  deep, 
and  a  third  16  inches  deep.  All  three  of  the  boxes  were  16  inches 
square.  I  then  placed  in  the  bottom  of  each  box,  three  pounds  of 
sulphate  of  magnesia.  The  soil  which  was  to  be  placed  in  the  boxes 
above  the  sulphate  of  magnesia,  was  then  thoroughly  mixed,  so  as  to 
be  uniform  throughout. 

"  The  boxes  were  then  filled  with  it.  This  was  done  on  the  25th 
of  May,  1852.  After  the  boxes  were  filled,  a  sample  of  soil  was 
taken  from  each  box,  and  the  percentage  of  magnesia  which  it  con- 
tained accurately  determined.  On  the  28th  of  June,  another  sample 
of  surface  soil  was  taken  from  each  box,  and  the  percentage  of  mag- 
nesia carefully  obtained  as  before. 

"The  result  in  each  case  pointed  out  clearly  a  marked  increase 
of  magnesia.  On  the  17th  of  July,  a  sample  of  surface  soil  was 
taken  a  third  time  from  each  box,  and  carefully  examined  for  mag- 
nesia; its  percentage  was  found  to  be  very  perceptibly  greater  than 
on  the  28th  of  the  preceding  month.  On  the  15th  of  the  months  of 
August  and  September  following,  similar  examinations  severally 
were  made,  with  the  same  evident  gradual  increase  of  the  magnesia 
in  the  surface  soil. 

"  The  following  are  the  results  as  obtained : 


Percentage  of  Magnesia. 

Box  40  in.  deep. 

Box  28  in.  deep. 

Box  16  in.  deep. 

May  25,  - 
June  28,       - 
July  17, 
August  15, 
September  15, 

0.18 
0.25 
0.42 
0.47 
0.51 

0.18 
0.30 
0.46 
0.53 
0.58 

0.18 
0.32 
0.47 
0.54 
0.61 

1  Dr.  Alex.  H.  Stephens,  of  New  York,  was,  I  think,  the  first  to  suggest 
this  idea.  He  speaks  of  it  in  his  address,  delivered  before  the  State  Agri- 
cultural Society  of  New  York,  on  the  Food  of  Plants,  in  January,  1848.  No 
accurate  experiments  were  performed,  however,  to  fix  it  with  a  degree  of 
certainty,  till  these  were  made  which  appear  in  this  paper. 


HOW   DRAINAGE    AFFECTS   THE   SOIL.  65 

"  Before  the  middle  of  October,  when  it  was  intended  to  make  an- 
other observation,  the  fall  rains  and  frosts  had  commenced ;  on  this 
account  the  observations  were  discontinued.  The  elevation  of  the 
magnesia,  as  shown  in  the  above  experiments,  evidently  depends 
upon  a  well-known  and  common  property  of  matter,  viz :  the  attrac- 
tion of  solids  for  liquids,  or  what  is  commonly  denominated  capil- 
lary attraction.  This  may  be  clearly  illustrated  by  taking  a  series 
of  small  capillary  glass  tubes,  and  insert  one  extremity  of  them  in  a 
solution  of  sulphate  of  magnesia  or  chloride  of  ammonium,  and  break 
or  cut  off  the  upper  extremities  just  below  the  hight  to  which  the 
solution  rises.  Expose  them  to  the  sun's  rays;  the  water  of  the  so- 
lution evaporates,  and  the  fixed  sulphate  of  magnesia  will  be  depos- 
ited just  on  the  upper  extremity  of  the  tube.  As  the  solution  evap- 
orates more  of  it  rises  up  from  below,  keeping  the  tubes  constantly 
full;  yet  no  sulphate  of  magnesia  passes  off;  it  all,  or  nearly  all,  re- 
mains at  or  rises  just  above  the  evaporating  surface.  Just  so  in  the 
soil;  as  the  water  evaporates  from  the  surface,  more  water,  impreg- 
nated with  the  soluble  materials  from  below,  rises  up  to  supply  its 
place.  As  this  evaporation  goes  on,  it  leaves  the  fixed  materials  be- 
hind in  the  surface  soil  at  the  several  points  of  evaporation. 

"  This  explains  why  we  often  find,  during  the  months  of  July, 
August  and  September,  a  crust  of  soluble  salts  covering  the  surface 
of  clay  deposits  which  are  highly  impregnated  with  the  alkalies,  or 
any  of  the  soluble  compounds  of  the  metals,  earths,  or  alkaline 
earths ,  also,  the  reason  in  many  instances  of  the  incrustations  upon 
rocks  that  are  porous  and  contain  soluble  materials.  It  also  helps 
to  explain  the  reason  why  manures,  when  applied  for  a  short  or 
longer  time  upon  the  surface  of  soil,  penetrates  to  so  slight  a  depth. 
Every  agriculturist  is  acquainted  with  the  fact  that  the  soil  directly 
under  his  barn-yard,  two  feet  below  the  surface  (that  is,  any  soil  of 
ordinary  fineness),  is  quite  as  poor  as  that  covered  with  boards  or 
otherwise  two  feet  below  the  surface  in  his  meadow ;  the  former  hav- 
ing been  for  years  directly  under  a  manure  heap,  while  the  latter, 
perhaps,  has  never  had  barn-yard  manure  within  many  rods  of  it. 

"  The  former  has  really  been  sending  its  soluble  materials  up  to 
the  manure  and  surface  soil ;  the  latter,  to  the  surface  soil  and  the 
vegetation  near  or  upon  it,  if  uncovered. 

"  The  capillary  attraction  must  vary  very  much  in  different  soils ; 
that  is,  some  have  the  power  of  elevating  soluble  materials  to  the 
surface  from  much  deeper  sources  than  others.  The  pores  or  inter- 
stices in  the  soil  correspond  to  capillary  tubes;  the  less  the  diame- 


66  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

ter  of  the  pores  or  tubes,  the  higher  the  materials  are  elevated. 
Hence  one  very  important  consideration  to  the  agriculturist,  when 
he  wishes  nature  to  aid  him  in  keeping  his  soil  fertile,  is  to  secure  a 
soil  in  a  fine  state  of  mechanical  division,  and  of  a  highly  retentive 
nature. 

"  Nothing  is  more  common  than  to  see  soils  retain  their  fertility 
with  the  annual  addition  of  much  less  manure  than  certain  others. 
In  fact,  a  given  quantity  of  manure  on  the  former  will  serve  to 
maintain  their  fertility  for  several  years;  while  the  latter,  with  a 
similar  addition,  quite  lose  the  good  effects  of  the  manure  in  a  single 
season. 

"The  former  soils  have  invariably  the  rocks,  minerals,  etc.,  which 
compose  them  in  a  fine  state  of  division ;  while  the  latter  have  their 
particles  more  or  less  coarse." 

The  rich,  clay  soil  contains  very  many  small  pores, 
while  the  quartz  sand,  and  especially  the  coarse,  sharp 
sand,  has  larger  spaces,  which  are  not  properly  capillary 
pores.  Like  any  other  small  apertures  and  spaces,  the 
small  pores  of  the  soil  are  capable  of  imbibing  and  retain- 
ing water,  contrary  to  the  laws  of  its  gravity.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  the  larger  spaces  or  pores,  the  water  moves 
entirely  according  to  the  laws  of  gravity.  When  we  place 
a  flowerpot,  filled  with  earth,  in  a  dish  filled  with  water, 
the  small  or  capillary  pores  will  draw  the  water  up,  while 
the  larger  spaces  will  be  filled  with  water  no  higher  than 
they  are  under  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  dish.  And 
if  we  pour  water  upon  the  earth  in  a  flowerpot,  we  may 
pour  a  certain  quantity  upon  it  without  even  a  drop  com- 
ing out  of  the  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  pot,  simply  be- 
cause it  is  retained  through  capillarity  in  the  fine  pores; 
But  when  all  the  capillary  pores  are  filled  with  water,  then 
the  water  poured  on  will  flow  down  the  larger  spaces,  and, 
according  to  the  laws  of  gravity,  escape  through  the  hole 
in  the  bottom  of  the  pot.  As  the  quantity  and  extension 
of  the  fine  pores  are  very  unequal  in  the  different  kinds 
of  soil,  the  quantity  of  water  which  they  are  capable  of 


HOW   DRAINAGE   AFFECTS   THE   SOIL.  67 

absorbing  and  retaining  through  capillarity  (or  their  "re- 
tentive power,"  as  it  is  called),  also  varies  greatly.  The 
humus,  or  clay  soil,  retains  most  water;  the  coarse,  sandy 
soil,  least. 

In  order  that  we  may  be  clearly  understood,  when 
speaking  of  the  different  kinds  of  soil,  we  have  concluded 
ta  adopt  the  following  classification  of  soils  from  the 
Mark  Lane  Express: 

u  The  best  classification  of  soils  is  a  chemical  classification,  founded 
on  their  composition  according  to  the  proportion  of  sand  separable 
by  washing ;  it  divides  them  into  sands,  sandy  loams,  loams,  clay 
loams  and  clays.  It  subdivides  these  again  into  fine  and  coarse 
sands  and  sandy  loams,  according  to  the  size  of  the  particles  of 
sand,  and  into  gravelly  sands,  loams  and  clays,  according  to  the  pro- 
portion of  pebbles  or  fragments  of  rocks.  The  proportion  of  calca- 
reous matter  indicates  whether  they  are  to  be  called  marly  or  calca- 
reous sands,  loams  and  clays ;  while,  if  they  contain  a  certain  pro- 
portion of  vegetable  matter,  .they  are  called  vegetable  soils.  Each 
name  should  express  some  defined  proportion  of  sand  separable  by 
washing,  and  of  calcareous  or  vegetable  matter.  In  such  a  classifi- 
cation as  we  advocate  we  should  have  : 

1.  Silicious  soils,  containing  from   90  to  95  per  cent,  of  sand. 
These  would  be  divided,  on  the  same  principle,  into  blowing  sand, 
coarse  sand,  good  agricultural  sand  and  calcareous  sand. 

2.  Loamy  soils,  70  to  90  per  cent  of  sand  separable  by  washing, 
subdivided  into  coarse  sandy  loam,  fine  sandy  loam,  loam,  rich  loam 
and  calcareous  loam. 

3.  Clayey  soils,  with  40  to  70  per  cent,  of  sand ;  divided  into  clay 
loam,  clay  and  calcareous  clay. 

Each  of  these  soils  termed  calcareous  sand,  calcareous  loam,  etc., 
contain  5  per  cent,  of  lime. 

Marly  soils  constitute  a  fourth  group,  in  which  the  proportion  of 
lime  ranges  between  5  and  20  per  cent,  and  are  divided  into  sandy 
marls,  loamy  marls  and  clayey  marls. 

Calcareous  soils  contain  more  than  20  per  cent  of  lime.  They  are 
divided  into  sandy  calcareous,  loamy  calcareous  and  clayey  calcare- 
ous. While  in  calcareous  sands,  clays  and  loams,  the  proportion  of 
lime  does  not  exceed  5  per  cent  The  difference  of  composition  de- 
noted by  difference  of  name  is  similar  to  the  sulphates  and  sulphites 


68  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

of  chemical  nomenclature,  which  contain  different  proportions  o.f 
sulphuric  acid. 

"According  to  the  quantity  of  pebble  fragments  yielded  by  a  square 
yard,  or  by  a  cubic  foot  of  the  soil,  they  might  be  denominated  gravels, 
or  gravelly  sand,  loams  and  clays. 

"  Vegetable  soils  vary  from  the  common  garden  mold,  which  con- 
tains from  5  to  10  per  cent,  of  vegetable  matter  to  the  peaty  soil,  in 
which  the  organic  matter  is  about  60  to  70  per  cent.  They  will  be 
vegetable  sands,  loams,  clays,  marls,  etc." 

Now,  a  sandy  or  silicious  soil  will  absorb  20  per  cent, 
or  one  fifth  of  its  own  bulk  of  water  before  it  is  fully  sat- 
urated, or  the  water  commences  to  drip  from  it;  a  loamy 
soil  will  absorb  40  per  cent.,  and  a  clayey  soil  will  absorb 
from  70  to  80  per  cent.  The  coarser  non-capillary  pores 
of  the  soil  can  not  be  filled  with  water,  unless  there  are 
impediments  prohibiting  the  water  from  following  its  grav- 
ity; thus,  in  the  flowerpot,  only  when  the  hole  below  is 
closed;  in  the  arable  soil,  only  when  it  is  resting  on  or 
inclosed  by  an  impervious  stratum;  but  in  a  properly- 
drained  soil  the  water  descends  as  regularly  as  in  the 
flowerpot.  Whenever  the  water  can  flow  unimpeded,  the 
larger  pores  are  filled  with  air;  and,  as  this  is  necessary 
in  an  arable  soil,  because  every  fertile  arable  soil  must 
contain  a  certain  quantity  of  air,  and,  to  a  certain  extent, 
be  in  communication  with  the  atmosphere,  therefore,  it 
follows  that,  in  any  fertile  soil,  the  sum  of  the  capillary 
pores  must  be  in  a  certain  proportion  to  the  non-capillary 
ones,  as  not  to  exceed  a  certain  limit,  without  the  soil 
thereby  assuming  unfertile  properties.  If  there  is  a  lack 
of  coarser  pores,  as,  for  instance,  in  rich  clay  soil ;  or,  if 
the  soil  lacks  air  and  communication  with  the  atmosphere, 
then  there  will  appear  all  the  unfavorable  properties  char- 
acteristic of  rich  clay  soil:  wetness,  coldness,  a  retarded 
decomposition  of  manure  (inactivity),  a  propensity  to 
forming  acids,  etc.  On  the  contrary,  if  there  is  a  lack  of 


HOW   DRAINAGE   AFFECTS    THE   SOIL.  69 

capillary  pores  in  the  soil,  and  a  preponderance  of  the 
larger  ones,  as  in  a  sandy  soil,  the  soil  has  too  little  re- 
tentive power,  i.  e.,  capacity  of  retaining  water,  and  evap- 
orates the  little  water  it  imbibes  too  soon ;  consequently, 
it  is  affected  with  drought;  beside,  it  suffers  the  manuring 
elements  to  attain  a  state  to  decompose  too  rapidly,  and 
allows  the  soluble  nutriments  of  the  plants  to  sink  too 
readily  with  the  atmospherical  water  into  the  subsoil,  and 
the  volatile  nutriments  to  ascend,  with  the  evaporating 
water,  into  the  atmosphere.  What  proportion  of  the  ca- 
pillary pores  to  the  non-capillary  ones  may  be  the  most 
favorable  in  any  soil,  can  not  now  be  defined,  but  experi- 
ments for  that  purpose  would  undoubtedly  result  in  many 
interesting  discoveries. 

Now,  if  we  consider  the  distribution  of  atmospherical 
water  in  the  soil,  we  might,  perhaps,  be  led  to  the  suppo- 
sition that  the  uppermost  strata  of  the  soil,  through  their 
retentive  power,  must  retain  the  water  falling  down  upon 
them,  and  give  nothing  to  those  strata  lying  below  them ; 
thus,  that  the  uppermost  strata  must  be  perfectly  saturated 
with  water  in  the  capillary  way,  while  those  lying  below 
them,  being  distinctly  separate,  must  be  and  remain  dry. 

If,  e.  g.,  the  retentive  power  of  a  soil  is  equal  to  fifty, 
(or  if  100  parts  of  the  soil  are  capable  of  retaining  50 
parts  of  water  in  a  capillary  way),  and  upon  this  soil  falls 
a  rain  in  such  a  quantity  as  to  give  one  pound  of  water 
upon  every  square  foot  of  the  surface,  then  the  uppermost 
stratum  of  the  soil,  of  about  one  fourth  of  an  inch  in 
thickness  (supposed  to  be  perfectly  dried),  would  com- 
pletely retain  the  rain  water  in  the  capillary  way,  and  the 
soil  lying  below  it  would  receive  none  of  it.  If  air  is 
supposed  to  exist  below  the  upper  stratum  of  one  fourth 
of  an  inch  in  thickness,  then,  of  course,  it  would  be  as 
above  stated,  and  no  water  would  permeate ;  but  if  we 


70  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

have  a  subsoil,  the  attraction  of  this  earth  changes  the 
condition  of  things ;  the  upper  soil  does  not  remain  sat- 
urated but  imparts  to  the  lower  one.  To  what  degree, 
and  to  what  depth  ?  This  depends  upon  the  quality  and 
the  kind  of  earth.  On  this  subject  one  may  readily  learn 
much  by  experiments.  If  we,  for  instance,  put  earth  in 
a  flowerpot,  and  pour  so  much  water  upon  it  as  is  suffi- 
cient to  saturate,  in  the  capillary  way,  the  uppermost 
layer  or  stratum  of  the  soil,  one  inch  in  thickness,  the 
examination  of  the  quantity  of  water  in  the  earth,  at  the 
different  hights  of  the  pot,  will  then  show  that  the  upper- 
most layer  is  fullest  of  water,  but  not  saturated  in  the  ca- 
pillary way;  the  water  has  penetrated  to  a  certain  depth, 
and  that  the  quantity  of  w^ater  is  steadily  decreasing  from 
the  top  down  to  this  depth.  The  way  of  diffusing  the 
water  depends  on  the  chemical  composition  of  the  soil,  as 
well  as  on  its  physical  properties.  The  fine  quartz-sand, 
for  instance,  when  in  a  wet  condition,  parts  with  the  water 
pretty  quickly ;  but  when  perfectly  dry,  it  possesses,  like 
humus,  especially  when  not  completely  decomposed,  a  re- 
pulsive property  to  water,  so  that  the  water  has  to  act 
upon  it  a  long  time  in  order  to  produce  saturation.  If, 
therefore,  after  a  drought  of  long  duration,  an  extra  quan- 
tity of  rain  falls  upon  a  loamy  soil  and  upon  a  fine  sandy 
soil,  after  a  time  the  water  will  be  found  to  have  pene- 
trated pretty  deep  into  the  former,  while  in  the  latter  only 
the  uppermost  layers  are  wet,  but  those  lying  below  them 
remain  in  a  state  of  dusty  dryness.  Thus,  the  loam  soil, 
in  spite  of  its  far  greater  retentive  power,  diffuses  the 
rain  water  more  perfectly  and  deeper ;  but  the  fine  sand, 
with  its  much  inferior  capillary  power,  retains  it  in  the 
thin  uppermost  stratum.  These  relations  become  still 
stronger  when  vegetable  remains,  but  little  decomposed, 
are  mixed  with  the  sand.  Also,  the  more  or  less  pulver- 


HOW   DRAINAGE   AFFECTS   THE   SOIL.  71 

ized  state  of  the  soil  has  an  influence  upon  the  capillary 
diffusion  of  water,  but  especially  its  being  equally  or  une- 
qually pulverized,  so  that  usually  the  distribution  is  more 
perfect  throughout  strata  which  are  equal  in  this  respect, 
than  throughout  those  which  are  unequal. 

The  distribution  of  the  water,  which  is  drawn  up  from 
below  through  capillary  attraction,  is  as  unequal  as  the 
different  kinds  of  earth.  If  one  puts  flowerpots,  filled 
with  sand,  loam  and  humus  soil,  in  dishes  of  water,  the 
absorption  of  the  same  will  take  place  in  a  very  different 
way ;  and  the  length  of  time  within  which  the  absorbed 
water  will  appear  at  the  surface  will  vary  very  much, 
also. 


CHAPTER    III. 


DRAINAGE   REMOVES   STAGNANT  WATERS,  FROM  THE 
SURFACE. 

FROM  the  preceding  chapter  it  will  be  seen  that  a 
drained  soil  is  necessarily  more  porous  than  an  undrained 
one;  consequently,  when  a  rain  falls,  the  water  which 
does  not  immediately  flow  off  from  the  surface,  escapes 
through  the  pores.  On  an  undrained  soil  the  water  be- 
comes stagnant,  because  the  pores  are  already  filled  with 
water  which  has  no  means  of  escape  other  than  by  evap- 
oration. A  hard  impervious  subsoil  prevents  it  filtering 
through  it,  and  sinking  down  where  the  roots  will  be  un- 
injured by  it.  Furnish  under  currents  for  the  water,  by 
means  of  drains,  and  there  is  no  longer  a  necessity  for 
the  water  to  remain  above  ground,  until  it  becomes  changed 
from  a  healthful  to  a  poisonous  substance,  by  the  contin- 
ued action  of  heat  and  atmospheric  air  upon  it. 

The  amount  of  water  which  may  be  evaporated  from  the 
surface,  under  the  various  influences  which  cause  and  con- 
trol this  evaporation,  as  well  as  the  quantity  which  passes 
downward  by  means  of  filtration  through  the  subsoil,  or 
into  the  drains,  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  importance  to 
every  person  engaged  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil. 

Chemists  assert  that  fully  four  times  the  amount  of  heat 
is  required  to  convert  water  into  vapor,  that  is  required  to 
bring  it  to  the  boiling  from  the  freezing  point.  It  is  no 
uncommon  occurrence  that  rain  to  the  depth  of  one  inch 
falls  in  the  course  of  a  shower.  The  amount  falling  on  a 
single  acre  then  would  amount  to  360  hogsheads,  and  to 
evaporate  this  amount  of  water  by  sunshine,  would  require 
(72) 


REMOVAL  OF  STAGNANT  WATERS.         73 

an  amount  of  heat  that  would  convert  upward  of  1,500 
hogsheads  of  water  from  the  freezing  to  the  boiling  point. 
Every  one  must  know  that  this  evaporation  is  a  very  slow 
process,  and  that  while  it  is  going  .on  the  soil  is  kept  wet, 
and  consequently  cold;  that  vegetation  is  retarded,  if  not 
absolutely  checked,  especially  in  the  early  spring  time 
Now,  if  these  1,500  hogsheads  of  water  were  carried  off 
by  drains,  this  great  amount  of  heat  necessary  to  evaporate 
would  be  saved,  and  would  be  applied  to  warming  the  soil. 

Some  interesting  facts,  in  relation  to  this  subject,  are 
furnished  by  Cuthbert  W.  Johnson,  in  a  late  number  of 
the  Farmer's  Magazine.  Observations  were  made  for 
eight  successive  years,  in  Hertfordshire,  and  the  mean 
amount  of  rain  which  fell,  was  found  to  be  for  each  year 
26J  inches,  of  which  over  11  inches  passed  into  the  soil 
and  was  nitrated,  and  over  15  inches  were  evaporated  from 
the  surface.  During  the  colder  months,  the  amount  fil- 
trated was  from  three  to  six  times  as  great  as  the  quan- 
tity which  passed  off  in  the  form  of  vapor.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  quantity  evaporated  during  the  hottest  months, 
was  more  than  fifty  times  as  great  as  the  amount  filtrated, 
the  latter  indeed,  not  amounting  during  a  whole  month  to 
the  twentieth  of  an  inch. 

The  greatest  quantity  evaporated,  in  a  single  year,  was 
about  1,800  tuns  per  acre,  and  the  greatest  quantity  fil- 
trated was  over  1,400. 

The  rate  of  evaporation  is  influenced  by  the  amount  of 
moisture  required  by  the  different  soils  for  saturation,  and 
the  degree  of  exposure  to  sun  and  winds.  Even  the  di- 
rection of  the  prevailing  winds,  characterized  by  the 
moisture  they  contain,  has  a  material  influence.  Several 
examples  are  given,  by  which  it  appears  that  the  average 
amount  of  rain  at  the  places  of  observation,  was  about  25 
inches  per  year ;  that  the  evaporation  from  water  exposed 
8 


74  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

to  both  sun  and  wind,  was  about  35  inches  per  year; 
shaded  from  the  sun,  but  exposed  to  the  wind,  it  was 
about  23  inches  ;  from  soil,  when  drained,  about  20  inches; 
and  from  undrained  soil,  saturated  with  water,  about  33 
inches,  an  excess  of  13  inches  of  water  to  be  charged 
against  an  undrained  soil. 

These  experiments  were  made  with  bare  earth,  free  from 
herbage  of  any  kind.  By  means  of  other  experiments 
made  with  plants  in  pots,  it  was  found  that  22  square 
inches  of  surface  of  bare  mold,  evaporates  in  twelve  days, 
1,600  grains  of  moisture,  while  a  pot  of  the  same  size, 
containing  a  polyanthus,  evaporated  5,250  grains ;  show- 
ing conclusively  the  great  rapidity  with  which  plants  carry 
off  moisture,  and  the  great  error  of  those  who  suppose 
that  weeds  can  be  of  any  use  in  shading  the  soil. 

Many  persons  presume  that  a  comparatively  small 
amount  only  of  the  water  which  falls  in  rain,  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  is  retained  by  the  soil,  or  is  evaporated, 
but  are  of  opinion  that  nearly  all  finds  its  way  into  rivers 
or  smaller  streams. 

Some  writers  assert  that  almost  the  entire  mass  of 
water,  from  rains,  is  absorbed  in  supplying  springs,  and 
other  subterranean  streams.  Marriotte,  a  celebrated 
French  writer,  has  examined  the  point,  with  direct  refer- 
ence to  whether  the  quantity  of  rain  water  is  sufficient  to 
feed  all  the  springs  and  rivers,  and  so  far  from  finding  a 
deficiency,  he  concludes  upon  the  amount  being  so  great  as 
to  render  it  difficult  to  conceive  how  it  is  expended.  Ac- 
cording to  observations  which  have  been  made,  there  falls 
annually  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth,  about  19  inches  of 
water ;  but  to  render  his  calculation  still  more  convincing, 
Marriotte  supposes  only  15,  which  makes  45  cubic  feet  per 
square  toise,  and  238,050,000  cubic  feet  per  square  league 
of  2,300  toises,  in  each  direction.  Now,  the  rivers  and 


REMOVAL   OF   STAGNANT   WATERS.  75 

springs  which  feed  the  Seine,  before  it  arrives  at  the 
Font-Royal  at  Paris,  embrace  an  extent  of  territory  about 
sixty  leagues  in  length,  and  fifty  in  breadth,  making  3,000 
leagues  of  superficial  area;  by  which,  if  238,050,000,  be 
multiplied,  he  have  for  the  product  714,150,000,000  for  the 
cubic  feet  of  water  which  fall,  at  the  lowest  estimate,  on 
the  above  extent  of  territory.  Let  us  now  examine  the 
quantity  of  water  annually  furnished  by  the  Seine.  The 
river  above  the  Font-Royal,  when  at  its  mean  hight,  is 
400  feet  broad  and  five  deep ;  when  the  river  is  in  this 
state,  the  velocity  of  the  water  is  estimated  at  100  feet 
per  minute,  taking  a  mean  between  the  velocity  at  the  sur- 
face and  that  at  the  bottom.  If  the  product  of  400  feet 
in  breath  by  five  in  depth,  or  2,000  feet  square,  be  multi- 
plied by  100  feet,  we  shall  have  200,000  cubic  feet  for 
the  quantity  of  water  which  passes,  in  a  minute,  through 
that  section  of  the  Seine  above  the  Font-Royal.  The 
quantity  in  an  hour  will  be  12,000,000;  in  a  day  288,000,- 
000;  and  in  a  year  105,120,000,000  cubic  feet.  This  is 
not  the  seventh  part  of  the  water  which,  as  previously 
stated,  falls  on  the  extent  of  country  that  supplies  the 
Seine;  the  large  remainder,  not  received  by  the  river, 
being  taken  up  by  evaporation,  beside  a  prodigious  quan- 
tity employed  for  the  nutrition  of  plants.1 

Now,  if  this  astounding  calculation  is  true  of  France, 
what  must  be  the  condition  of  Ohio,  and  many  other  states 
where  the  annual  rainfall  is  about  40  inches,  or  nearly 
three  times  the  amount  assumed  by  Marriotte.  Think 
for  a  moment  of  the  entire  surface  of  Ohio,  being  an- 
nually covered  more  than  a  yard  deep,  with  rain  water  ! 
The  autumn  rains  average  about  10  inches,  and  generally 
thoroughly  saturate  the  earth  with  water,  so  that  when 

1  Gallery  of  Nature,  page  263. 


76  LAND    DKAINAGE. 

the  winter  precipitations  take  place  they  can  not  infiltrate, 
or  penetrate  the  soil — neither  does  evaporation  take  place 
during  this  period  of  the  year ;  so  that  when  spring  re- 
turns the  task  upon  the  heat  from  the  sun  is  not  only  to 
evaporate  so  much  of  the  10  inches  of  spring  rain  as  has 
not  flowed  off  by  surface  drainage,  but  the  8  inches  of  the 
winter  precipitations,  and  much  of  the  autumn  rains — is 
it  any  wonder  that  the  soil  is  not  in  a  workable  condition 
much  before  the  middle  of  May?  Think  of  the  spring 
sun  being  obliged  to  evaporate  about  3,000  hogsheads  of 
water  from  every  acre  of  arable  soil ! 

The  following  table  shows  the  amount  of  rain  and 
(melted)  snow  which  falls  at  fifteen  points,  in  different 
portions  of  the  State  of  Ohio  : 

;N"OTE — The  rainfall  is  stated  in  inches  and  hundredths  in  the  col- 
umns of  the  respective  months — thus,  at  Marietta  the  rainfall  for 
the  month  of  July,  is  4.56  inches,  or  a  little  more  than  four  and  a 
half  inches ;  for  the  year  at  the  same  place  it  is  nearly  43  inches. 


REMOVAL  OF  STAGNANT  WATERS. 


77 


flight  above 
Atlantic. 


1*12      21  = 

fi  00  ^  •-• 


•  5     «S     3=1 

s  S     .    a  ±>~ 

•^5     fc     N2« 


Winter. 


r—         CO         C5         C5         i-  < 


®.     *     §. 

O        t-^        r-i 


Antnmn. 


J2        $         CO         3         O         O         S         i5         =0         CCO 

-o"      o      r*      o      oo      o 


Summer. 


5    S    S    21    §    S    8 

§    S    S3    S    S    2    ^- 


S    S! 


IN       c;       -* 

«<=>!-; 

O        CO        CO 


Spring. 


i-l        O        O 


o      o      o      c  t* 


The  Year. 


%       §    5S 


December. 


s     g  s  s 


S    g 


November. 


§  s 


October. 


-M        <M         CO        S-l        CO 


r-t  O 

^2 d_ 


September. 


SS 


«    * 

•M'      co 


August. 


^OO^OolOO 

^j      q      o      c;      o      cc      i>;      co 
oir-<coco'co'H»sieo 


«      ".      ^ 

CO        ^H        CO 


July. 


?^§ 


ICQ          ^'      ^      t- 


June. 


S    2S    S 

co'      «*      co" 


May. 


§    §    S    §    3 


g§ 

CO'  CO 


April. 


1>         ~>         CO         CO         CO 


March. 


o      o      «a      co      co      co 

O         OJ         r-<         CO         <N         O 

_2J ^      "      M      ft T5_ 


f3        N        *- 

^  s  s 


February. 


«      «     §      o 
rr       co       f>i       co 


January. 


s      i    F^   §    r^    § 


PI  s  s  *  a 


i    S 


Longitude. 


S    £    g    S 


Latitude. 


o      o      o      «b      o 

<M        CO        O        •*        <M 
00000 

S    S    §    3    g 


paign 
Jeffor- 
Mont- 
amil- 


ashing 
Frankli 


»  6.  I  £  *3_-  5-  "  " 

I  ]  i         Hi 

^la|8Jyl|l|ct|H 

P4Ot3at^50t,SC> 


. 
Grauvillo,  Licking 
Co. 
MMsillon,  Stark  Co. 


I       1 


78 


LAND   DRAINAGE. 


How  much  of  the  amount  of  rain  which  falls  can  be 
carried  off  by  the  drains  is  an  all  important  question ;  and 
upon  the  answer  to  this  question  depends,  in  a  very  great 
degree,  the  benefit,  or  disadvantage  of  underdrainage. 

The  following  table,  copied  from  observations  at  Tha- 
rand,  in  Saxony,  will  serve  to  show  the  influence  of  rains 
on  the  discharge  of  water  from  drains: 


Temperature  of  air. 

Quantity  of  Rain 
per  day,  per  acre, 
in  gallons. 

Discharge  of 
Drain  Water,  per 
day,  per  acre,  in 
gallons. 

Increase  com- 
pared with  the 
preceding  day. 

Mini- 
mum. 

Maxi- 
mum. 

1853. 

May      13 

37.4 

54.5 

16091 

1198 

401 

14 

39.2 

59. 



2568 

1370 

June      15 

50. 

71.6 

12105 

101 



16 

53. 

69.8 

29967 

1793 

1692 

17 

55.4 

66.2 

13212 

5222 

3429 

18 

54.5 

68. 

29 

5267 

45 

23 

48.2 

64.4 

5167 

2228 

1405 

24 

49. 

62.6 

17429 

10S52 

8624 

1854. 

May       14 

45.5 

71. 



38 



15 

51. 

65.5 

27754 

103 

65 

16 

47.5 

59. 

23324 

9132 

9029 

29 

49. 

60. 

27089 

15919 

13S51 

June      29 

56.5 

71.6 

49528 

15291 

12280 

"         30 

50. 

73.4 

43844 

15203 



July        1 

46.4 

59. 

8562 

15708 

505 

In  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  5, 
page  151,  Josiah  Parkes,  a  celebrated  land  drainer  in 
England,  publishes  a  table,  embracing  observations  dur- 
ing a  space  of  eight  years,  in  which  he  finds  the  amount 
of  water  filtrated,  that  is,  passed  into  the  earth  and  ab- 
sorbed by  drains,  roots  of  plants,  and  retained  in  the  soil, 
to  vary  from  36  to  57  per  cent.  Annexed  is  the  table 
prepared  by  Mr.  Parkes  : 


REMOVAL  OP  STAGNANT  WATERS. 


79 


Years. 

Rain. 
Inches. 

Filtration. 
Per  cent. 

Evaporation. 
Per  cent. 

Rain,  per  acre. 
Tuns. 

1836, 

31. 

56.9 

43.1 

3139 

1837, 

21.10 

32.9 

67.1 

2137 

1838, 

23.13 

37.0 

63.0 

2342 

1839, 

31.28 

47.6 

52.4 

3168 

1840, 

21.44 

38.2 

61.8 

2171 

1841, 

32.10 

44.2 

55.8 

3251 

1842, 

26.43 

44.4 

55.6 

2676 

1843, 

26.47 

36.0 

64.0 

2680 

Average, 


26.61 


42.4 


57.6 


2695 


In  vol.  20,  page  292,  of  the  same  journal,  Mr.  J. 
Bailey  Denton,  an  agricultural  engineer,  and  who  is,  per- 
haps, oftener  quoted  than  any  other  agricultural  engineer 
at  the  present  day,  shows  the  discharge  from  drains  from 
the  1st  of  October  1856,  to  the  31st  of  May  1857,  to  have 
varied  from  less  than  one  fourth,  to  more  than  one  half 
of  the  entire  rainfall  during  that  period. 

"The  following  observations  on  evaporation  and  filtration,1  for 
which  we  are  indebted  to  the  patient  and  carefully  conducted  ex- 
periments of  Mr.  Charles  Charnock,  of  Holmfield  House,  near  Ferry- 
Bridge  (one  of  the  vice-presidents  of  the  Meteorological  Society  of 
London),  present  some  valuable  facts  for  consideration.  (  pp.  80-1.  ) 

"In  these  experiments,  the  evaporation  from  saturated  soil  was 
determined  thus:  'A  leaden  vessel  of  13  inches  deep,  and  a  foot 
square,  was  filled  to  within  an  inch  of  the  top  with  soil,  and  placed 
in  the  ground,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  previous  vessel,  with  a 
pipe  level  with  the  surface  of  the  soil  to  carry  off  the  excess  of  top- 
water  into  a  receiver.  The  same  quantity  of  water  was  then  daily 
supplied  to  this  soil  as  the  evaporating  dish  of  column  2  showed 
was  evaporated.  The  soil  was  stirred  as  in  the  former  case,  and 
thus  represented  wet  and  undrained  land.' 

1  Quoted  by  J.  H.  Charnock,  Esq.,  Assistant  Commissioner  under  the 
Drainage  Acts,  in  a  paper  "  On  Suiting  the  Depth  of  Drainage  to  the  Cir- 
cumstances of  the  Soil,"  given  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  So- 
ciety, vol.  x,  pt.  ii,  pp.  515  to  518. 


80 


LAND  DRAINAGE. 


tl-l    1 

O.S 

^i 

"S  "ci 

il 

0    M 

5^ 

3  T! 

"1  3 

o  ^ 
tC  3 

r3    3 

1.2 

£    ri 

0     SH 

w 
<tf 

00 
H 

Fil- 
tra- 
tion. 

o 

Through  the  Soil   from 
tlie  Drain  3  ft.  deep. 

05  ••£:  ?l  i^  **  —  l  iC  <M  t~  M  1-  —  i 

i^  c:  <  c-i  c^l  *7  ;N  r~  •  01  —  •>!  —  c. 
OOOOOOOOOO  O  O 

* 

Evaporation. 

o 

'o 
tn 

a 
1 

When  Saturated. 

t~oor?SiioiDC>^30M!»r; 

QC  t-"  ^  ^7  O  00  ^f  1^  r-  ~'  "^  ^7 

5 

•* 

When  Drained. 

0  O  !M  •*  t-  O  O  t-  O  <M  O  Is- 
C3  (N  t^  00  -*  r-  -0  1-  ~  QC   ^  "M 

g 

O!NOr-l(NC^'NCOC   Or^O 

CO 

J 

d 
^ 

ta 

Shaded  from  Sun, 
but  exposed  to 
Wind. 

S3ggS5|g^???5gi52 

r-I  I-H"  ^1  C-i  r-<  CO  •>!  •>!  i—  '  r-I  rH  r-<" 

•M 
?1 

<M 

Exposed   to  both 
Sun  and  Wind. 

feSSSSSSSSy^.S 

<N  c-i  r-'  c?  c<J  i.rj  rj  ro  <M'  t—  '  r-'  r-< 

^         I 

3    1 

rt^ 

gnS 

S'a 

S    0 

w'| 
^iu 

M 

^ 

On  the  surface. 

5S§2S^S§5S35?. 

H< 

ci 
•* 

00 
iH 

Fil- 
tra- 
tion. 

•o 

Throujjli  the  Soil  from 
the  Drain  3  ft.  de<^>. 

S§§§§  .5°2§?,,x2 
r-;  o  ^  =:'  o   '  c  d  d  o  o  d 

f2 

Evaporation. 

>o 

From  Soil. 

When  Saturated. 

§SS?5?53SJ§§§Ess?5 

AN  ACCOUNT  OF  OHSKIIVATIONS  made,  through  a  scries  of  five  years,  at  Holmfie 
York,  by  Charles  Charnock,  Esq.,  with  a  view  to  determine  the  amount  of  Eva 
cumstance^,  on  the  Magnosian  Limestone  Soil. 

""""^  "1  ^  '  •'    ^  ""* 

•* 

When  drained. 

g     1 

OJ 

»^?SiS§S;w^53 

i-l  O  ?7  r-  <M  (—  .-O  i—  !N  '~  IM  O 

CO 

From  Water 

Shaded  from  sun, 
but  exposed  to 
Wind. 

COr-ieOO»O5?0-*'*ts-S^ 

r-  oo  1-1  CTJ  t~-  1~  t-  CM_  t~  r:  10  —  ; 
^  o  r-I  i-J  o<5  c-i  c<i  c^i  r-^  r-  '•  r+  ci 

-XI         ' 

Tj<             i 

?l 

(M 

Exposed  to  both 
Sun  and  Wind. 

§siSSS22;2s??S§§ 

i—'  r^  rH  C^l  ^'  -^  -*'  M  M'  CM'  C<1  CO 

s 
s 

s 

r—< 

On  the  surface. 

0  -^  X  ^  CO  ^  -*  C5  -*  C*  0  -0 

Jl 

C<i  O  CO  r-i  O-i  r-  CO  rH  C^'  r-  CO*  d 

CO 

1 

^  >•»                                            ^           ^    fe 

^?   ..              ^r-2  c-5^     ^f 

^r^^C«                                                   Cr-'S^Cr^                        C* 

l||f^§^ltll|          £ 

^  £  s  <  ?.  ^  -H  <  .^  o  ^  a 

15  -a    §3   l-dg-   I   s    eg°-=£f1^s££N  =  S3 

6  «     £  M     .?  .2  *     Si     *     £  *  1  3  1  £  «  |  "2  £  »  a  J  1  s 

is-  j5.^i  2  |  i:i]&jf£|3isi|j 
!!  !*  *!S  i 

IS  I*  It*  t  $    Il||i=l^!l^s4| 

^  SI  1ILI  *  ItfPflllllpJ 

f  l!  aflS 

li  ;*  -.iyy.ajisl;ls^|sl-:lll| 

ii  i^-«liif  lifl  HlMitilli  i?f 

a3d|l|||li|s|i|fiiid!i,ilr.=iil 
^fi^lpplipi  l!!lMfJll 

«o     *  3    ^     £     £     i    igfi3§ojf£-.SCJ«pa>H7s:3 

REMOVAL   OF   STAGNANT   WATERS. 


81 


1 

Fil- 
tra- 
tion. 

- 

Through   the  Soil  from 
the  Drain  3  ft.  deep. 

SL-5S£t2£t§££ 

5 

o  o"  o"  s*  o  o  c  d  o  r->  s  o" 

Evaporation. 

4 

1 
3 
1 

When  Saturated. 

gg^g^ooc^o^ 

I 

a 

-KNMr.CO^CCCONr-.r- 

When  Drained. 

<N^J"acsst-»s*-x?«OTj'ooo 

r-<OOCMOi-i<N<Ni-t!MOrH 

- 

From  Water. 

Shaded  from  sun, 
but  exposed  to 
Wind. 

00  C5  >C  t-  'N  tfi  -O  u1  S3  C3  Ci  O 
iS  '.£  u-  SI  O  M  —  O  C--  -T  S  r-i 

p 

CO 

<M 

Exposed  to  both 
Suu  and  Wind. 

SsSsggsggs-sgi 

CO 

SlWWrH-^^WNWr*,-. 

_a 

rl 

On  the  surface. 

55sSS§§§5SS§ 

UO 

1 

rH 

Fil- 
tra- 
tion. 

0 

Through  the  Soil  from 
the  Drain  3  ft.  deep. 

5SSS&SSS552SS 

« 

1 

O 

1 

When  Saturated. 

c-.  -r  —  •  j  •-;  -jc  ^  rt  ~.  -M  o  t^ 
•<*•  C3  oc  c;  ri  3-.  i-.  rt;  ?i  x  st  oo 

8 

CO 

- 

When  Drained. 

1 

T~  o"  r4  1-^  •-"  d  06  -<r  o"  si  o  si 

O3 

From  Water. 

Shaded  troni  Sun, 
but  exposed  to 
Wind. 

s^ssgssgss^:?? 

M 

—  a  —'::'—:.'  —  —  —  —  —:;' 

ON 

Exposed  to  both 
Sun  and  Wind. 

COl-lr^W^O'-S^Ot^COt^ 

| 

»-i  o  ci  •*  <M"  M  oi  ci  si  ci  oi  co 

c 

rH 

,0n  the  surface. 

i-<  O  r-'  r-  oi  CO  CO  -T  ~  CO  r-^  CO 

00 

oo 

I 

Fil- 
tra- 
tion. 

O 

Through  the  Soil  from 
the  Drain  3  ft.  deep. 

5S§  |  ,32s^g3Ss 

p 
co' 

_o^          .—  ^^  ^^.^,_ 

a 
f 

1 

10 

"3 

OQ 

1 

W7hen  Saturated. 

5S353:irSSs312S 

s 

When  drained. 

l52SS3li222| 

5 

CO 

I 

£ 

Shaded  trom  Sun, 
but  exposed  to 
Wind. 

z:  '-f,  ~<  t~  x  £  t~  ~  oi  x  Z  i-1 

r-.'  o  r-"  oi  co'  co'  oi  si  cc  r-"  i-i  o 

s 

0* 

Exposed  to  both 
Sun  and  Wind. 

r-  r4  (?i  CO  C5  »O  ^'  rli  -1»  si  ci  O* 

o 
o 

a 

I 

r-t 

On  the  surface. 

rii^c^sj^Wt^ooci-^r-.  co 
r-J  si  ci  o"  o  i-i  si  si  i-I  r-  i-i  o" 

8 

05 

I 

1 

82  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

"  In  the  first  place,  it  is  observable  how  much  greater  is  the 
amount  of  evaporation  from  water  than  from  land,  and  how  near,  as 
shown  by  columns  2  and  5,  the  evaporation  from  wet  land  is  to  that 
from  water  itself:  hence,  the  wetter  the  land  the  greater  the  evapo- 
ration, and,  as  the  well-known  consequence,  the  greater  its  excess 
of  coldness.  We  have  a  familiar  illustration  of  nature's  process  in 
this  particular,  in  the  method  often  adopted  to  cool  our  wine  on  a 
hot  summer's  day,  by  wrapping  a  wet  napkin  round  the  bottle,  and 
exposing  it  to  the  full  sun :  as  the  moisture  from  the  napkin  is  evapo- 
rated, the  temperature  of  the  wine  declines  to  almost  freezing  point. 
The  school  boy's  experiment  of  producing  ice  before  a  fire,  by  in- 
casing the  vessel  in  wet  flannel,  and  adding  a  portion  of  salt  to  the 
water,  is  a  similar  example,  with  this  additional  lesson  to  the  farmer, 
that  to  apply  certain  limes  to  wet  land  is  only  increasing  the  evil. 

"You  will  then,  in  the  second  place,  notice  how  much  less  the 
evaporation  is  in  the  shade  than  in  the  sun,  and  consequently  that 
wet  land  must  be  the  warmest  when  there  is  the  least  sun.  From 
which  cause,  no  doubt,  arises  that  too  vigorous  growth  of  young 
wheat,  so  often  observable  on  such  land  in  the  winter  and  spring 
months,  which  never  fails  to  produce  serious  injury  to  the  crop  in 
all  its  subsequent  stages.  And,  thirdly,  you  will  remark  how  com- 
paratively small  a  proportion  of  the  rain  which  falls  is  shown  to  be 
carried  off  by  filtration.  Taking  the  average  of  the  five  years'  ex- 
periments, it  will  be  seen  that  only  4 '82  inches  out  of  24 '6  inches  of 
rain  passed  through  the  land  to  the  depth  of  three  feet.  We  might, 
therefore,  be  led  at  the  first  glance  to  infer  that  land,  in  general, 
stands  less  in  need  of  drainage,  or  may  be  drained  by  a  less  perfect 
system,  than  is  supposed  to  be  requisite,  did  not  daily  experience 
oppose  such  a  conclusion.  We  must,  therefore,  endeavor  to  recon- 
cile this  seeming  incongruity,  and  deduce  at  the  same  time,  from 
the  facts  disclosed,  such  data,  as  may  guide  us  in  determining  the 
essential  requisites  to  ensure  completeness  of  effect  in  drainage. 

"  Xow,  although  there  can  be  no  reason  to  question  the  accuracy 
of  the  experiments  on  filtration  made  by  Mr.  Dickinson,  and  re- 
corded in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  of  Eng- 
land, vol.  v,  part  1,  yet  there  is  very  considerable  difference  in 
the  aggregate  result,  as  shown  by  them  and  the  account  before  us. 
'  The  first  important  fact  disclosed,'  says  the  commentator,  page  148, 
'is,  that  of  the  whole  annual  rain,  about  42}  per  cent.,  or  11  3-10 
inches  out  of  26  6-10,  have  filtered  through  the  soil:'  whereas,  in 


REMOVAL  OF  STAGNANT  WATERS. 


83 


the  Holmfield  House  experiments  there  is  only  shown,  as  we  have 
already  said,  4 '82  inches  out  of  24'6,  or  about  5  1-10  per  cent  against 
42£  per  cent.  This  is  certainly  a  very  great  and  somewhat  irrecon- 
cilable difference  in  the  result  of  two  experiments  made  professedly 
to  ascertain  the  same  fact.  Now,  on  referring  to  the  '  Memoirs  of 
the  Literally  and  Philosophical  Society  of  Manchester,'  voL  v, 
part  2,  you  will  find  a  paper  on  rain,  evaporation,  etc.,  from  the 
pen  of  the  celebrated  Dr.  John  Dalton  (the  father  of  the  science  of 
meteorology),  wherein  he  explains  a  series  of  experiments  made  by 
himself  and  his  friend,  Mr.  Thomas  Hoyle,  jun.,  to  ascertain  the 
amount  of  evaporation  and  filtration,  and  giving  the  following  table 
of  results : 


Water  through  the  two  Pipes. 

Mean 

Mean 

Months. 

1796. 

1797. 

1798. 

Mean. 

Rain. 

Evapo- 
ration. 

January, 

1.897 

.680 

1.744 

1.450 

2.458 

1.008 

February,  - 

1.778 

.918 

1.122 

1.273 

1.801 

.528 

March,    - 

.431 

.070 

.335 

.279 

.902 

.623 

April, 

.220 

.295 

.180 

.232 

1.717 

1.485 

May,        -         - 

2.027 

2.443 

.010 

1.493 

4.177 

2.684 

June, 

.171 

.726 



.299 

2.483 

2.184 

July,        - 

.153 

.025 



.059 

4.154 

4.095 

August,    -  - 





.504 

.168 

3.554 

3.386 

September, 



.976 



.325 

3.279 

2.954 

October, 



.680 



.227 

2.899 

2.672 

November, 



1.044 

1.594 

.879  - 

2.934 

2.055 

December, 

.200 

3.077 

1.878 

1.718 

3.202 

1.484 

6.877 

10.934    |    7.379 

8.402 

33.560 

25.158 

Rain, 

30.629 

38.791    1  31.259 

Evaporation, 

23.725 

27.857 

23.862 

"  'Having  got  a  cylindrical  vessel  of  tinned  iron,'  says  the  doctor, 
'  ten  inches  in  diameter,  and  three  feet  deep,  there  were  inserted 
into  it  two  pipes,  turned  downward,  for  the  water  to  run  off  into 
bottles :  the  one  pipe  was  near  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  the  other 
was  an  inch  from  the  top.  The  vessel  was  filled  up,  for  a  few  inches, 
with  gravel  and  sand,  and  all  the  rest  with  good  fresh  soil.  Things 
being  thus  circumstanced,  a  regular  register  has  been  kept  of  the 
quantity  of  rain  water  that  ran  "off  from  the  surface  of  the  earth 
through  the  upper  pipe  (while  that  took  place),  and  also  of  the 
quantity  of  that  which  sank  down  through  the  three  feet  of  earth, 
and  ran  out  through  the  lower  pipe.  A  rain-gauge  of  the  same 


84  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

diameter  was  kept  close  by,  to  find  the  quantity  of  rain  for  any  cor- 
responding time.' 

"You  will  notice  that  the  general  result  of  these  experiments  ac- 
cords, pretty  nearly,  with  that  of  the  Holmtield  account;  and  yet  it 
may  be  readily  conceived  that  circumstances  of  situation  and  strati- 
fication may  often,  occasion  as  wide  a  difference  in  the  amount  of 
filtration  as  is  shown  between  Mr.  Dickinson's  and  Mr.  Charnock's 
observations. 

"On  an  examination  of  the  details  registered  in  the  account  be- 
fore us,  it  will  be  evident  that  the  amount  of  filtration  is  not  exclu- 
sively dependent  on  the  fall  of  rain ;  but  that  a  variety  of  other 
causes  combine  to  affect  its  proportion.  For  instance,  in  March, 
April,  May,  June,  and  July,  of  1842,  the  fall  of  rain  was  13 '65  inches, 
and  the  filtration  for  the  same  period  was  only  2 "05  inches;  while 
in  April,  1846,  there  was  5 '97  of  rain,  and  2'99  of  filtration.  Simi- 
lar instances  are  also  noticeable  in  Mr.  Dickinson's  details.  From 
March  to  October,  inclusive,  of  1840,  a  fall  of  11  '52  inches  of  rain 
is  recorded,  without  any  filtration  ;  but  in  November  1842,  the  rain 
was  5'77,  with  5  inches  of  filtration.  Dr.  Dalton's  table  also  shows 
the  same  variations.  The  lesson,  therefore,  derivable  from  these 
experiments,  so  far  as  regards  filtration  by  drains,  is  one  rather  of 
a  speculative  than  of  a  definite  character;  for,  although  we  are  as- 
sured filtration  must  be  secured,  we  are  left  with  a  large  and  vary- 
ing margin  as  to  .the  proportion.  We  must  not,  however,  overlook 
the  fact,  that  all  the  registered  details  show  occasionally  an  amount 
of  filtration  nearly  equal  to  the  rain  that  falls,  and,  therefore,  in  de- 
termining the  size  of  pipe  to  be  used,  the  ready  exit  of  this  maxi- 
mum quantity  must  be  provided  for." 

Perhaps,  the  most  accurate  observations  to  determine 
the  amount  of  rain  carried  off  by  drains,  were  made  in 
Prussia,  at  Tharand,  by  Dr.  Hugo  Schober,  of  the  Agri- 
cultural School  and  Experimental  Farm  at  that  place.  We 
subjoin  the  folio  wing  from  the  "  Jahrbuch  der  Akadamie 
zu  Tharand  fur  1855." 

"  These  experiments  were  made  on  three  several  tracts ;  two  were 
upland,  and  the  other  was  partly  a  garden,  and  partly  a  meadow. 

"  The  first  tract  was  an  upland  experiment  field,  and  contained 
about  3£  acres. 


REMOVAL   OF   STAGNANT   WATERS.  85 

"  The  second  tract  was  an  upland  experiment  field,  and  contained 
about  5^  acres. 

"  The  third  tract  was  part  garden  and  part  meadow,  and  contained 
about  *2\  acres. 

"  The  drain  pipe  was  laid  at  a  depth  of  four  feet  in  each  tract, 
but  in  the  first  the  drains  were  three  rods  apart,  while  in  the  other 
two  they  were  two  rods  only.  The  fall  was  well  adapted  to  test  the 
workings  of  the  drains ;  and,  therefore,  the  minor  drains  were  laid 
with  1 J  inch  pipe,  while  the  sub-main  and  other  drains  had  2:}  inch 
pipe. 

"  The  first  tract  had  89  rods  of  minor,  and  16  rods  of  sub-main, 
making  a  total  of  105  rods  per  acre.  In  the  2d  and  3d  tracts  were 
an  average  of  145  of  minor,  and  21  rods  of  sub-main,  making  an 
aggregate  of  166  rods  per  acre  of  drains. 

"  The  operations  of  these  were  in  the  highest  degree  satisfactory. 
These  tracts  are  situated  at  an  elevation  of  714  French  feet  above 
the  Elba,  or  1028  above  the  North  Sea.  It  was  hazardous  to  grow 
winter  crops  on  these  tracts,  on  account  of  the  excessive  moisture 
they  contained — the  crops  being  liable  to  winter-kill,  but  since  they 
have  been  underdrained,  are  as  reliable  for  winter  crops,  as  any 
other  fields  in  the  kingdom.  It  was  the  rule  that  it  was  very  late  in 
the  spring,  before  they  were  in  a  condition  to  be  cultivated;  but 
since  they  have  been  underdrained,  they  have  become  workable  at 
as  early  a  period  in  the  spring  as  any  other  terrains  in  the  district. 
The  crops  on  these  tracts  are  remarkable  for  their  vigor  and  even- 
ness. 

"  So  far  as  the  annexed  tabular  statements  are  concerned,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  state  that  the  quantity  of  water  from  the  main  drain 
of  each  tract,  was  daily  measured,  regularly  at  8  o'clock  A.  M.,  and 
4  o'clock  P.  M.,  and  the  hourly  discharge  per  acre  computed  from 
this  data.  It  is  true  that  this  method  does  not  give  the  exact  or  pre- 
cise amount,  yet  sufficiently  so  for  all  practical  purposes.  The  rain- 
gauge  was  observed  at  8  A.  M.,  and  8  P.  M. ;  the  snow  was  melted, 
and  the  resultant  water  measured  in  the  rain-gauge. 


86 


LAND   DRAINAGE. 


AGGREGATE  AMOUNT  OF  RAIN  PEE  ACRE;  ALSO,  THE  AGGREGATE  AMOUNT  OF 
WATER  DISCHARGED  BY  THE  DRAINS  J  ALSO  THE  PER  CENT.  OF  RAIN  WATER 
DISCHARGED  BY  DRAINS. 


Per  cent,  of 

Amount  of  Kain. 

Discharge  by  Drains. 

Itain  water 

Galls. 

Galls. 

discharged. 

1853, 

February, 

57381.2 

26932.6 

46 

March, 

40840.4 

71025.5 

173 

April,        - 

153486.2 

124659.7 

80 

May,      - 

91546.2 

53297. 

58 

June,         - 

173896, 

69922.8 

40 

July,      - 

123949.4 

40656.3 

32 

August,     - 

85667.2 

1014. 

1 

September,     - 

136271.8 

20588.6 

15 

October,    - 

73324.9 

17073.9 

27 

November, 

44712.8 

3706.8 

8 

December, 

16888.1 

1224.7 

7 

1854. 

January, 

31142. 

10699.9 

34 

February, 

78449.8 

46381.6 

59 

March, 

61160.6 

102612.9 

167 

April,         - 

81828. 

55379.4 

67 

May,      - 

215545.9 

91680.9 

42 

June,         - 

266136.7 

74928.4 

28 

July,      -         -         - 

225024.4 

188964.7 

83 

August,     - 

174698.3 

19925.1 

11 

September,     - 

30159.4 

1536.8 

5 

October,    - 

48907.8 

873.2 

1 

November/     - 

104751.5 

967.3 

0.9 

December, 

204106. 

185729.2 

90 

1855. 

January, 

46678.7 

61420.9 

131 

Aggregate  from  Feb.  1, 

'53,  to  Jan.  31,  '54, 

1029656.6 

440802.5 

Feb.l,'54,to  Jan.31/55, 

1537694.3 

830400.8 

There  are  three  instances  only  in  which  the  drains  dis- 
charge more  water  during  the  month  than  the  amount  of 
rain  which  fell  during  the  same  period ;  but  the  excess  of 
discharge  is  readily  explained ;  by  reference  to  the  table 
it  will  be  observed  that  in  each  instance,  during  the  month 
previous,  a  greater  amount  of  rain  fell  than  during  the 
month  in  which  the  discharge  was  excessive.  During  the 
year  commencing  February  1,  1853,  and  ending  January 
31, 1854,  the  proportion  of  water  discharged  by  the  drains 
was  42  per  cent,  of  the  amount  of  rain  ;  for  the  year  end 


REMOVAL    OF    STAGNANT   WATERS. 


87 


ing  January  31,  1855,  the  drainage  amounted  to  55  per 
cent.,  or  an  average  for  the  two  years  of  48- 5  per  cent. 

AVERAGE   DISCHARGE   PER   HOUR,  PER   ACRE,  OP   "WATER   FROM   THE    DRAINS. 


First  Tract. 

Second  Tract. 

Third  Tract. 

Galls. 

Galls. 

Galls. 

1853. 

February,     - 

23.4 

26.6 

51.3 

March,     - 

59.4 

66.8 

161.3 

April,  - 
May,        -         ... 

191.4 
47.1 

171.5 
51.9 

156.4 
115.8 

June,  - 

62.7 

81.5 

147.1 

July,        -         ... 

45.8 

46.8 

71.2 

August,         - 

.5 

1.4 

2.1 

September,       -         -         _ 

22.4 

19.6 

43.6 

October,        ... 

19.7 

16.7 

32.4 

November,       - 



2.9 

12.5 

December,    - 



.5 

4.4 

1854. 

January,           - 

12.3 

9.7 

21. 

February,     - 

58.6 

47.4 

100.9 

March,     -         ... 

122.2 

105.7 

185.8 

April,  .... 

57.6 

89.9 

83.4 

May,        .... 

70.9 

83.1 

213. 

June,  -         -         - 

42.9 

94.4 

174.8 

July.        -         ... 

82.1 

270.2 

409. 

August,        - 

2.4 

22.3 

55.6 

September,       ... 

0.4 

0.8 

5.1 

October,        ... 





3.5 

November,       - 

0.1 

0.2 

3.6 

December,    - 

265.1 

199.2 

283.9 

1855. 

January, 

68.0 

91.0 

88.5 

Average  from  Feb.  1,  '53,  to 

Jan.  31,  '54, 

45.6 

46.8 

77.5 

Average  from  Feb.  1,  '54,  to 

Jan.  31,  '55, 

64.2 

83.8 

134.1 

Excess  in  '54,    - 

18.6 

37.0 

56.6 

In  the  second  table  we  find  that  the  largest  quantity 
discharged  in  an  hour  from  an  acre  was  409  gallons ;  this 
would  amount  to  about  156  hogsheads  in  24  hours;  there- 
fore it  would  require  two  and  about  one  third  days  to  drain 
a  rainfall  of  one  inch,  or  of  360  hogsheads  per  acre. 
The  entire  amount  of  the  10  inches  of  spring  rains  in 
Ohio  would  then  be  carried  off  by  the  drains  in  about  24 


88  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

days,  provided  none  of  it  escaped  by  surface  drainage  or 
evaporation ;  but  at  least  one  half  of  the  amount  precip- 
itated escapes  by  these  means ;  it  is,  therefore,  very  cer- 
tain that  the  drains  would  remove  the  remainder  in  less 
than  twelve  days. 

How  long  would  evaporation  require  to  remove  this 
amount  of  water? 

It  is  well  known  that  evaporation  commences  whenever 
the  thermometer  is  above  32°  F.  by  means  of  solar  heat, 
but  the  winds  very  often  evaporate  or  "  dry  up "  more 
moisture  than  the  warmest  summer  day. 

The  evaporation  from  a  reservoir  surface  at  Baltimore, 
during  the  summer  months,  was  assumed  by  Colonel  Abert 
to  be  to  the  quantity  of  rain  as  two  to  one. 

Dr.  Holyoke  assigns  the  annual  quantity  evaporated  at 
Salem,  Mass.,  at  56  inches;  and  Colonel  Abert  quotes 
several  authorities  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  stating  the  quan- 
tity at  56  inches.  These  facts  are  given  by  Mr.  Blodget, 
and  also  the  table  below: 

QUANTITY    OF    WATER    EVAPORATED,    IN    INCHES,    VERTICAL    DEPTH. 

Jan.  Feb.  Mar.  Apr.  May.  June.  J'y.  Aug.  Sept.  Oct.  Nov.  Dec.  Year. 
Whitehaven,  Eng., 

meanofGyrs.  0.88  1.04  1.77  2.54  4.14  4.54  4.20  3.40  3.12  1.93  1.32  1.09  30.03 
Ogdensburg,  N.  Y., 

1  yr.,  1.65  0.83  2.07  1.63  7.10  6.74  7.79  5.41  7.40  3.95  3.66  1.15  49.37 

Syracuse,  N.Y.,  1 

yr.,  0.67   1.48   2.24  3.42   7.31  7.60  9.08   6.85   5.33  3.02   1.33   1.86   50.20 

The  quantity  for  Whitehaven,  England,  is  reported  by 
J.  F.  Miller.  It  was  very  carefully  observed,  from  1843 
to  1848 — the  evaporation  being  from  a  copper  vessel,  pro- 
tected from  rain.  The  district  is  one  of  the  wettest  of 
England — the  mean  quantity  of  rain,  for  the  same  time, 
having  been  45-25  inches.1 

If,  then,  the  atmosphere  of  Ohio  has  the  evaporating 
capacity  of  that  of  Ogdensburg,  N.  Y.,  it  would  require 

1  French  on  Farm  Drainage. 


REMOVAL   OF   STAGNANT   WATERS.  89 

the  entire  months  of  March,  April  and  May  to  evaporate 
the  amount  of  spring  rains — that  is,  if  none  of  the  pre- 
cipitation escaped  by  infiltration  or  surface  drainage ;  or, 
in  other  words,  underdrains  will  accomplish  in  24  days  the 
same  removal  of  water  for  which  evaporation  requires  92 
days. 

A  few  of  the  more  obvious  advantages  of  draining  over 
evaporation  may  be  briefly  enumerated  thus  : 

In  undrained  ground  the  season  of  growth  is  shortened 
by  the  time  occupied  in  evaporation,  always  a  long  and 
tedious  process.  In  drained  lands,  on  the  contrary,  much 
time  is  gained,  not  only  by  permitting  an  earlier  working, 
but  in  the  better  adaptation  of  the  ground  to  germination. 
In  undrained  ground  the  water,  passing  off  in  the  form  of 
vapor,  carries  with  it  a  certain  quantity  of  the  latent  heat 
of  the  earth,  and  this  heat  is  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  vapor  formed.  Thus,  the  land  is  left  colder  than  it 
was  when  covered  or  saturated  with  water,  and  by  so  much 
germination  is  retarded.  But  in  land  properly  drained 
the  water  passes  off  without  being  converted  into  vapor. 
The  temperature  of  the  land  at  the  surface  remains  the 
same,  and  the  temperature  of  the  subsoil,  through  which 
the  water  passes,  becomes  as  warm  as  the  surface.  Thus 
the  depth  of  heated  earth  is  increased,  and  the  surface  is 
less  liable  to  be  affected  by  change  of  temperature. 

In  evaporation,  organic  and  mineral  matters,  in  the 
form  of  gases,  pass  off  with  the  vapor,  thus  leaving  the 
ground  poorer;  while  in  filtration,  accomplished  by  drain- 
ing, these  substances  become  fixed  in  the  earth  for  the 
nourishment  of  the  future  plant. 

Undrained  lands  suffer  from  hot  and  dry  weather.    For, 
though  there  may  be  water  within  a  few  inches  of  the  sur-    . 
face,  the  ground  becomes  so  compact  and  baked  that  it  is 
not  sufficiently  porous  to  draw  up  moisture.    Drained  land, 
9 


90  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

on  the  other  hand,  is  open  to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere 
to  a  great  extent ;  it  becomes  finely  comminuted,  the  hard 
pans  and  stiff  clays  are  broken  up  and  rendered  sufficiently 
porous  to  imbibe  water  from  below ;  and  also,  having  a, 
greater  surface  exposed  to  the  air,  it  receives  more  moist- 
ure in  the  form  of  dew. 

In  winter  and  spring,  wet  land  heaves  up,  under  the 
influence  of  frost  and  heat,  thus  exposing  such  grains  as 
have  been  planted  directly  to  the  weather ;  for  this  reason 
wheat  and  other  grains  are  liable  to  winter-kill,  and,  in- 
stead of  them,  spring  up  wild  grasses  and  noxious  weeds. 
Draining,  to  a  great  extent,  prevents  this.  When  land  is 
dry,  the  variations  it  experiences  under  unequal  tempera- 
tures are  very  slight,  compared  with  the  changes  produced 
by  the  same  .variations  on  wet  land.  The  result  of  ex- 
treme heat  and  extreme  cold  is  to  increase  the  bulk  of 
water  to  a  considerable  extent.  This  expansion  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground  is  seen  in  little  hillocks,  with  cracks 
running  in  all  directions.  By  the  evaporation  of  moisture 
from  this  frozen  ground,  many  particles  of  earth  are  left 
unsupported  and  fall,  thus  leaving  the  tender  roots  ex- 
posed to  the  weather  when  protection  is  most  needed. 

Messrs.  Waege  and  Yon  Mollendorf,  of  Gorlitz,  Prussia, 
have  published,  in  the  Zeitschrift  fur  Drainirung,  No.  23, 
1855,  a  series  of  observations  on  the  discharge  of  drain 
water  from  different  kinds  of  soil.  They  employed  the 
Dalton  apparatus  for  percolation.  The  experimental 
boxes  were  filled  to  the  depth  of  four  feet  of  soils  taken 
from  fields  in  which  drains  were  placed  at  the  same  depth. 
These  boxes  contained  respectively: 

I.  Box  No.  1,  a  clay  soil,  consisting  of  88  per  cent,  of 
clay  and  12  per  cent,  of  sand;  box  No.  2,  loamy  soil,  41*7 
per  cent,  of  clay,  humus,  etc.,  58'3  per  cent,  sand;  box 


REMOVAL   OF   STAG^TANT   WATERS.  91 

No.  3,  a  loamy  sand  soil,  19-2  per  cent,  of  clay,  humus, 
etc.,  80-8  per  cent.  sand. 

II.  The  soil  in  the  system  A,  of  the  Moholz  estates,  is 
loamy  soil,  corresponding  to  that  of  box  No.  2 ;    in  the 
system  B,  loamy  sand  soil,  corresponding  to  that  of  box 
No.  3. 

III.  The  plan  of  Kuestner,  on  the  field  of  Gorlitz.    The 
drains  have,  with  a  very  cloddy  (much  cut)  ground,  a  fall 
of  18-f    inches  to  10  perches.     They  are  4  feet  deep  and 
4  perches  apart.     The  soil  consists  alternately  of  strata 
of  clay,  of  loam  and  of  gravel,  and  corresponds  on  an 
average  with  No.  3  of  the  experimental  boxes. 

The  corresponding  observations  of  the  depth  of  rain 
were  made  at  Gorlitz. 

The  monthly  average,  derived  from  daily  observations, 
for  the  meteorological  year  1854  (Dec.  1,  1853 — Dec.  1, 
1854),  are  given  in  the  first  table  on  pp.  92-3. 

Influence  of  the  kind  of  soil  on  the  quantity  of  drained 
water. — In  confirmation  of  former  observations  the  loamy 
soil  drained  the  largest  amount  of  water  of  the  three  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  soil  employed  in  the  Gorlitz  experimental 
boxes.  The  results  at  Tharand  were  similar.  The  mouth 
of  the  main  drain  of  the  third  part  of  the  estate  at  that 
place — being  loamy  soil— ^discharged,  in  monthly  average, 
309-9  cans  per  acre  per  hour;  while  the  mouths  of  the 
first  and  second  division — in  clay  soil — yielded  only  182'4 
and  187'3  cans,  respectively.  The  drain  water,  according 
to  the  measurements  in  the  apparatus  at  Gorlitz,  amounts 
to  15  per  cent,  of  rain  water  in  the  clay  soil,  and  33'4  per 
cent,  in  the  loamy  soil.  Supposing  the  falls,  etc.,  to  be 
equal,  the  same  capacity  of  pipes  would  suffice  for  about 
two  acres  of  clay  soil  that  is  required  for  one  acre  of 
loamy  soil  (also  loamy  sand  soil). 


92 


LAND    DRAINAGE. 


YEAR  1854. 

Winter. 

Spring. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Ap'l.   j  May. 

Bain  fall  in  Prussian  cubic  inches  on  1 

sq.  foot  Prussian,  at  Gorlitz, 

61.74 

181.15 

376.43 

180.50 

138.02    411.57 

Drain  water  in  Prussian  cubic   inches, 

on  1  Prussian  sq.  foot  land  : 

I.  Gorlitz,              fl,  clay  soil,     - 
experimental    -j  2,  loam  soil, 
boxes.                  (^3,  loamy  sand  soil, 

- 

= 

168.8 
3^4 

115.9 
299.G 
295.2 

30.6 
16.7 

3.6 
9.G 

6.8 

II.  Moholz,              (  A,  loam  soil, 

35.78 

62.42 

333.13 

319.34 

68.49 

33.67 

|B,  loamy  sand  soil, 

29.59 

51.27 

292.29 

2i»7.8ii 

76.54 

43.69 

III.'Kuestner's  plan  :  clay,  loam,  sand, 













Average  of  the  six  Silesian  stations, 

13.07 

22.7-i 

161.42 

265.58 

23.47 

19.47 

Drain  water  in  per  cent,  of  rain  : 

I.  Gorlitz,              fl,  clay  soil, 
experimental  •<  2,  loam  soil, 
boxes.                 (^3,  loamy  sand  soil, 

- 

- 

49.30 
2.5 
0.9 

04.21 
105.98 
163.55 

22.17 
12.10 

0.87 
2.33 
1.65 

II.  Moholz,            J  A,  loam  soil,   - 

57.95 

34.46 

88.5 

176.92 

49.62 

8.18 

(  B,  loamy  sand  soil, 

47.93 

28.3 

77.65 

165.02 

55.46 

10.61 

III.  Kuestner's  plan:  clay,  loam,  sand, 

Average  of  the  six  Silesian  stations, 

21.17 

12.25 

43.78 

147.14 

27.87 

4.73 

Influence  of  the  season  on  the  discharge  of  water. ]  — 
These  observations  are  in  harmony  with  the  former  ob- 
servations at  Tharand,  and  also  agree  with  the  average  of 
the  Silesian  stations,  inasmuch  as  the  drains  in  spring 
flow  strongest,  compared  with  the  quantity  of  rain  water 
(44*3  per  cent,  of  the  rain  water).  The  least  discharge 
took  place,  on  an  average,  in  fall — thus  deviating  from 
former  observations  at  the  Gorlitz  boxes,  and  agreeing 

l  The  discharge  is,  according  to  John,  changed  according  to  the  time  of 
day.  A  comparison  of  the  observations  made,  three  times  a  day,  by  Gropp, 
at  Isterbies,  1852,  resulted  as  follows  : 


Number  of 

Morning. 

Noon. 

Evening. 

Observa- 

Prussian 

Prussian 

Prussian 

tions. 

quarts. 

quarts. 

quarts. 

February,  - 

29 

1848 

1828 

1810 

March, 

31 

1163 

]160                  1149 

April, 
May,     - 

30 
31 

826 
1205 

821 
1206 

823 
1193 

June, 

30 

592 

537 

532 

July  (first  half),  - 

15 

131-2 

12  3-5 

123-5 

In  the  5  1-2  months, 

166 

5647  1-2 

55643-5  i         55193-5 

Average, 


5577  quarts  of  drain  water. 


REMOVAL   OF    STAGNANT    WATERS. 


93 


Summer. 

Fall. 

« 

• 

1 

Summer 

F 

YEAH 

1854. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

657.74 

472.53 

611.37 

116.59 

120.68 

375.34 

619.32 

730.09 

1741.64 

612.61 

3703.G6 

9.6 

153.8 

80.9 

30.9 

168.8 

119.5 

244.3 

30.9 

563.5 

516.9 

188.6 

112.3 

6.2 

2.3 

60.2 

9.5 

339.8 

817.8 

68.7 

1235.8 

360.4 

266.0 

70.6 



1.3 

26.1 

3.4 

318.7 

697.0 

27.4 

1046.5 

140.52 

311.27 

143.61 

72.86 

29.54 

136.20 

431.33 

431.50 

595.40 

238.60 

1686.83 

134.22 

337.85 

216.30 

107.26 

42.95 

189.95 

373.15 

418.09 

688.37 

340.16 

1819.77 

9.39 

37.94 

2.2G 

0.09 

— 

0.69 

— 

— 

49.59 

0.78 



195.17 

215.91 

104.33 

31.07 

12.68 

74.01 

164.36 

323.52 

515.41 

117.76 

1270.5 

1.46 

32.55 

13.23 





8.23 

30.16 

16.37 

14.0 

5.0 

15.0 

78.59 

39.91 

18.37 

5.33 

1.91 

16.04  i      1.53 

46.55 

47,0 

11.2 

33.4 

54.79 

56.29 

11.55 

1.08 

(5.95 

0.55 

43.66 

40.0 

4.4 

28.3 

21.36 

65.87 

23.49 

62.49 

24.48 

36.29 

69.65 

53.42 

34.2 

38.9 

45.« 

20.41 

71.50 

35.38 

92. 

35.59 

50.61 

60.28 

57.26 

39.5 

55.5 

49.2 

1.43 

8.03 

0.37 

0.08 



0.18 

— 



2.8 

0.1 



29.67 

45.69 

17.06 

26.65 

10.51 

19.71 

32.43  j    44.32 

29.6 

19.2 

34.3 

!              i 

with  the  observations  at  Tharand.  Quite  considerable 
deviations,  however,  occur  sometimes,  which  can  be  ex- 
plained only  by  continued  and  increased  observations. 

Time  in  which  drain  water  arrives  at  the  pipes  in  vari- 
ous kinds  of  soil. — The  following  table,  from  the  Gorlitz 
boxes,  is  confirmed  by  numerous  experiments : 


No. 

The  Drains  discharged. 

The  Drains  were  humid. 

of  rain- 

Aver- 

Aver- 

days. 

No.  1. 

No.  2. 

No.  3. 

age  No. 

No.l. 

No.  2 

No.  3. 

age  No. 

of  days. 

of  days. 

December, 



















January, 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

February, 

22 

2 

4 

4 

3 

3 

5 

3 

4 

March, 

17 

6 

11 

11 

9 

2 

2 

3 

2 

April, 

7 

3 

2 

2 

1 

3 

2 

2 

May, 

13 

2 

3 

4 

3 

9 

6 

8 

8 

June, 

20 

5 

26 

22 

18 

22 

3 

7 

11 

July, 

9 

15 

16 

16 

16 

9 

5 

8 

7 

August, 

21 

10 

12 

8 

10 

4 

— 

2 

2 

September, 
October, 

9 
14 

— 

3 

1 

— 

1 

4 

2 
1 

2 

— 

November, 

21 

9 

16 

9 

11 

7 

5 

8 

7 

In  1854, 

153 

49 

95 

76 

73 

61 

32 

41 

45 

May  to  Nov. 

1853, 

104 

84 

106 

118 

103 

53 

27 

10 

30 

94  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

There  were  discharged,  during  166  observations  in  the 
morning,  127  9-10  quarts  more  than  in  the  evening;  these 
observations  show  a  discharge  for  the  166  days  greater, 
by  184,176  quarts,  or  6,821  cubic  feet,  than  the  evening 
observations. 

This  disproportion,  according  to  John,  must  be  ex- 
plained partly  by  the  smaller  amount  of  evaporation  dur- 
ing the  night,  and  partly  by  the  fact  that  the  rainfall  during 
the  day  (which,  perhaps,  exerts  a  greater  influence  on  the 
discharge  of  water  from  the  drain  pipes  the  next  morning 
than  the  immediately  preceding  night  rain),  seems  to  ex- 
ceed the  rainfall  during  the  night  (at  Crefeld  the  ratio 
of  night  rain  to  the  day  rain  was  as  159-28  to  181-6  in 
the  years  1850-'54).  The  influence  of  the  time  of  day 
is  to  be  taken  in  consideration  for  the  obvervations  of  the 
quantities  of  drain  water;  if  an  observation  for  three 
times  a  day  can  not  be  made,  the  noon  time  should  be 
preferred,  as  its  results  come  nearest  to  the  average,  ac- 
cording to  the  table. 

In  the  clay  soil  No.  1,  as  compared  with  the  sand  soil 
No.  2,  and  the  loamy  sand  soil  No.  3,  the  drain  was  flow- 
ing the  least  number  of  days,  but  kept  humid  the  longest. 

Condition  of  moisture  of  the  soil. —  With  regard  to  the 
question,  whether  draining  might  not  dry  too  much ;  ex- 
periments were  made  again  in  the  boxes,  in  a  depth  of 
two  feet,  at  a  time  when  the  drains  had  just  ceased  to 
carry  away  water.  The  contents  of  moisture  amounted  to: 


.  -     - 

i 

In  clay  soil. 
Per  cent. 

In  loam  soil. 
Per  cent. 

In  loamy 
sand  soil. 

In  the  average 
of  the  three 

Per  cent. 

kinds  of  soil. 

On  May  6,  1854,    - 

18.6 

20. 

20.9 

19.8 

Sept.  5,  1854,     - 

18.5 

19. 

19.5 

19. 

aUay  and  Aug.,  1853, 

20.5 

19.3 

15.6 

18.5 

Oct.  and  Nov.,  1853, 

20.5 

18.5 

14. 

17.6 

REMOVAL  OF  STAGNANT  WATERS.          95 

Permanent  moisture  has,  therefore,  in  heavy  soil,  dimin- 
ished since  1853,  perhaps  owing  to  an  increase  of  drying 
crevices,  and  it  has  considerably  increased  in  lighter  soil, 
perhaps  owing  to  its  having  become  more  compact. 

The  above-mentioned  V.  Mollendorf  has,  beside,  pub- 
lished a  summary  comparison  of  the  quantities  of  rain  and 
drain  water  according  to  German  and  English  observations, 
with  the  remark  that  the  German  measurements  (which 
are  not  specified),  that  served  for  computation,  had  been 
made  at  Tharand  (Saxony),  Gorlitz,  Moholz,  Grosskrau- 
scha,  Deutsch-Paulsdorf,  Ullersdorf  (all  of  them  in  Silesia), 
and  at  Suisheim  (Baden).— (Wttda,  Centralblatt,  1856, 
I,  No.  14.)  See  table  at  top  of  pp.  96-7. 

These  figures,  on  the  whole,  confirm  the  conclusions 
drawn  from  the  investigations  made  in  common  with 
Waege;  the  difference  between  the  discharge  of  drain 
water  of  loam  soil  and  loamy  sand  soil,  and  that  of  clay 
soil,  is  found  to  be  less  considerable. 

The  atmospheric  precipitations  of  a  large  aggregate  of 
ponds,  ditches,  and  other  works,  on  a  surface  of  1.43  geo- 
graphical square  miles,  near  Leipsic,  are  collected  and 
employed  as  spring  water  in  the  mining  districts.  The 
water  is  measured  every  week  by  the  rotations  of  the 
water  wheel.  If  we  compare  the  discharge  of  water  com- 
puted therefrom,  with  the  rains  from  1830-'51,  the  result 
shows  that  there  has  been  an  annual  average  (during  these 
22  years)  of  rain  equal  to  24-55  Prussian  inches. 

In  spring,  61 '8  per  cent.  (64'73.) 
"  summer,  3M  "  (36'82.) 
"  fall,  39-5  "  (27-84.) 
"  winter,  767  "  (37'4.) 


In  the  year,  4 77  per  cent    (4T64.) 

Observation. — The  figures  in  parentheses  —  average  per  cent,  of 
the  rain  water  discharge  by  drains  according  to  German  observation. 


96 


LAND    DRAINAGE. 


• 
Spring. 

Sum- 

Mar. 

Ap'l. 

May. 

Total. 

June. 

July. 

A.   CLAY  SOIL. 

German  observations. 

Rainfall,        -        -        Prussian  inches, 

1.31 

2.20 

3.22 

6.73 

4.48 

3.97 

Discharged  drain  water,      ''            " 

1.87 

1.41 

0.97 

4.25 

0.99 

1.68 

Drain  water,  per  cent,  of  rainfall, 

142.7 

62.3 

30.2 

63.2 

22.1 

42.3 

B.    LOAM  SOIL. 

a.   English  observations. 

Rainfall,       -        -        Prussian  inches, 

1.57 

1.41 

1.81 

4.79 

2.15 

2  92 

Drain  water,     -        -            "            " 

1.05 

0.29 

0.11 

1.45 

0.04 

0.04 

Drain  water,  per  cent,  of  rainfall, 

66.G 

21. 

5.9    • 

30.3 

1.8 

1.9 

I.   German  observations. 

Rainfall,       -         -        Prussian  inches, 

1.35 

1.81 

3.05 

6.21 

4.25 

3.73 

Drain  water,     -        -           "            " 

2.34 

1.3 

1.61 

5.25 

1.77 

2.27 

Drain  water,  per  cent,  of  rainfall, 

173.3 

71,8 

52.8 

84.5 

41.6 

63.5 

C.    LOAMY  SAND  SOIL. 

German  observations. 

Rainfall,        •        -        Prussian  inches. 

1.35 

1.1C 

2.68 

5.19 

3.7 

3.41 

Drain  water,                         "            " 

1.23 

0.51 

0.51 

2.25- 

1.38 

2.07 

Drain  water,  per  cent,  of  rainfall, 

91.1 

44. 

19. 

43.4 

37.3 

60.7 

D.     LIMY  SOIL. 

English  observations. 

Rainfall,       -        -        Prussian  inches. 













Drain  water,              -            "            " 













Drain  water,  per  cent,  of  rainfall, 













Average  from  German  observations  : 

Rainfall;       -        -        Prussian  inches, 

1.34 

1.72 

2.98 

6.04 

4.14 

3.7 

Drain  water,     -        -            "            " 

1.81 

1.07 

1.03 

3.91 

1.71 

2.01 

Drain  water,  per  cent,  of  rainfall, 

135. 

62.2 

34.57 

64.73 

41.3 

59.9 

The  excess  of  drain  water  over  rain  water  prevailing  in 
the  German  observations,  in  the  first  spring  month,  or 
March,  is  probably  caused  by  the  circumstances  that  this 
month  must  remove  the  meteorical  precipitations  of  the 
winter  months,  collected  in  the  form  of  ice  and  snow ;  a  cir- 
cumstance which  does  not  occur  in  England  with  its  milder 
winter.  The  difference  between  the  discharge  of  the 
drains  in  England  and  Germany  during  the  summer  is  to 
be  accounted  for  by  the  prevalence  of  the  summer  rains 
in  the  German  climate ;  the  fact  that  autumn  furnishes 
more  rain  in  England  than  in  Germany,  is  in  consequence 
of  the  prevalence  of  the  fall  rains  in  the  English  climate, 
and  of  the  cloudy  quality  of  its  fall  atmosphere,  which 
retards  evaporation. 


REMOVAL  OF  STAGNANT  WATERS. 


97 


mer. 

Fall. 

Winter. 

Total 
Year. 

Aug. 

Total. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Total. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Total. 

3..12 
0.67 
19. 

11.97 
3.34 
27.9 

2.01 
0.37 
18.4 

1.54 
0.63 
40.9 

1.88 

0.38 
24. 

5.13 
1.38 
26.9 

2.48 
1.24 
50. 

1.21 
0.24 
19.8 

1.95 
1.02 
52.3 

5.64 
2.5 
44.3 

29.47 
11.47 
38.9 

2.36 
0.03 
1.5 

6.73 
0.11 
1.7 

2.56 
0.36 
14. 

2.74 
1.36 
49.6 

3.73 
3.16 
84.9 

9.03 
4.88 
54.1 

1.68 
1.76 
104.6 

1.79 
1.26 
70.4 

1.92 
1.5 
78.5 

5.39 

4.52 
83.9 

25.94 
10.96 
42.3 

3.75 
1.04 
27.7 

11.73 
5.18 
44.2 

2. 
0.52 
26. 

1.33 
0.53 
39.9 

1.81 
0.39 
21.5 

5.14 
1.44 
28. 

3.06 
2. 
65.7 

1.21 
0.43 
35.5 

1.98 
0.9 
45.4 

6.25 
3.34 
53.4 

29.33 
15.21 
51.9 

3.83 
0.86 
22.5 

10.94 
4.31 
39.4 

2.12 

0,63 
29.7 

1.31 

0.65 
49.6 

1.59 
0.16 
10.1 

5.02 
1.44 

28.7 

2.42 

0.55 
22.7 

1.12 
0. 
0. 

1.98 
0.43 
21.7 

5.52 
0.98 
17.7 

26.67 
8.98 
33.7 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

23.88 
4.68 
19.6 

3.7 
0.85 
23. 

11.54 

4.26 
36.82 

2.04 
0.51 
25. 

1.4 
0.6 

42.57 

1.66 
0.31 
18.7 

5.1 
1.42 

27.84 

2.65 
1.27 
47.54 

1.18 

0.22 
18.64 

1.97 
0.78 
39.6 

5.8 
2.27 
37.4 

28.48 
11.86 
41.64 

10 


CHAPTER    IV. 


DRAINAGE   REMOVES    SURPLUS  WATER   FROM   UNDER 
THE  SURFACE. 

THERE  is  a  body  of  stagnant  water  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  as  those  who  work  clayey  soils  will  not 
have  failed  to  observe.  This  water  sometimes  settles  in 
the  bottom  of  the  furrows,  even  when  the  surface  of  the 
land  was  sufficiently  dry  to  work.  In  porous  soils  this 
body  lies  at  a  great  depth,  but  in  clayey  soils  usually 
within  a  foot  or  two  of  the  surface,  and  is  known  among 
drainers  as  the  "water  line."  This  body  of  water  not 
only  saturates  the  soil,  and  consequently  excludes  the  air, 
whose  presence,  on  a  previous  page,  we  have  shown  to  be 
very  necessary,  but  it  keeps  the  soil  cold  and  retards  veg- 
etation. In  the  words  of  Dr.  Hobbs,  quoted  by  Judge 
French,  in  his  admirable  treatise  on  "Farm  Drainage," 
"A  knowledge  of  the  depth  to  which  this  water  table 
should  be  removed,  and  of  the  means  of  removing  it,  con- 
stitutes the  science  of  draining." 

In  the  annexed  engraving  (Fig.  5),  suppose  the  right- 
hand  portion,  1,  to  represent  a  loamy  soil,  and  the  left- 
hand  portion,  2,  a  heavy  clayey  soiL  If  in  the  clayey 
soil  a  drain  be  sunk  to  7,5,  the  water  table  will  ordinarily 
assume  the  direction  3,8,7,  when  the  drain  commences  to 
act,  leaving  that  portion  of  the  soil  indicated  by  the  lighter 
shade,  2,3,8,7,  in  good  workable  condition,  and  ready  to 
supply  nutriment  to  the  roots  of  plants ;  while  in  a  loamy 
soil  the  direction  will  be  5.4.f.  In  other  words,  the  table 
at  3  will  not  sink  to  a  level  with  7  as  rapidly  as  from  1 
to  5.  Hence,  in  clayey  soils  the  drains  should  either  be 

(98) 


DRAINAGE    REMOVES    SURPLUS   WATER. 


99 


deeper  or  closer  together,  to  effect  the  same  object 
loamy  soils. 

This  ground  water  arises  from 
several  causes,  viz:  There  may 
be  an  impermeable  or  impervious 
strata  at  a  comparative  short  depth 
from  the  surface,  which  will  not 
permit  the  waters  from  the  rains 
to  pass  through  it,  as  at  5,  Fig.  6. 
Suppose  the  contour  of  the  sur- 
face of  a  field  to  be  represented 
by  A,  B,  C,  D,  Fig.  6,  and  5  is  a 
stratum  of  impervious  clay ;  4,  a 
stratum  of  "hard  pan"  or  blue  i 
clay ;  and  3  a  stratum  of  com-  ~' 
pact  white  clay,  resting  on  a  stra- 
tum, 2,  of  sand  or  gravel;  and 
this  last  on  an  impervious  bed,  1. 
It  is  very  evident  that  all  the 
rains  falling  from  A  to  C  will  col- 
lect from  the  surface  at  B,  while 
that  which  penetrates  the  soil  will 
flow  along  the  top  of  the  stratum, 
5,  until  it  reaches  the  lowest  point 
under  B;  consequently,  at  B, 
there  will  be  a  swamp  or  morass. 
Even  should  the  surface  water 
A 


as  in 


"13 


FIG.  6. 


from  the  rain  be  evaporated,  the  swamp  would  still  be  sup- 


100  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

plied  with  water  inherent  in  the  strata  from  A  to  C.  A 
well  sunk  at  C  into  the  gravel  at  7  would  be  well  supplied 
with  water,  because  2,  being  a  water  bearing  stratum, 
would  receive  its  supply  from  below  A,  and  5,  being  an 
impervious  stratum,  would  not  permit  water  to  escape  at  B; 
but  a  well  sunk  at  B,  into  the  stratum  2,  would  seriously 
affect  the  well  at  C,  and  perhaps  "dry  it  up;"  at  E  there 
would  be  springs,  swamp  or  morass,  according  to  the  na- 
ture of  the  ground.  In  this  case,  the  ground  water,  or 
water  of  pressure,  as  Judge  French  terms  it.  is  that  which 
is  found  in  strata  4  and  5. 

There  may  be  a  nice  distinction  in  law,  and,  perhaps, 
in  very  scientific  treatises  on  drainage,  between  ground 
water  and  springs ;  yet,  for  all  practical  purposes,  so  far 
as  drainage  is  concerned,  they  amount  to  about  the  same 
thing — for  the  reason  that  the  great  object  of  drainage  is 
to  cut  off  this  supply  of  superabundant  subterranean  wa- 
ter— derived  originally,  no  doubt,  from  the  same  source. 
And  the  only  difference  which  really  can  exist  is  this,  viz : 
a  spring  is  a  body  of  subterranean  water,  collected  in  a 
reservoir,  and  flowing  from  thence  in  a  larger  or  smaller 
stream  ;  while  the  ground  water  is  a  body  of  subterranean 
water  diffused  throughout  the  strata,  and,  when  collected 
and  discharged  by  drains,  is  as  much  spring  water  as  if 
nature  herself  discharged  it  in  the  form  of  a  regular 
spring. 

The  strata  beneath  the  soil  are  not  always  conformable 
to  the  surface,  as  those  in  Fig.  6,  but  frequently  lie  nearly 
level  with  the  horizon,  or  making  but  a  small  angle  with 
it,  while  the  surface  itself  may  be  full  of  undulations.  In 
illustration  of  the  formation  of  springs  and  the  action  of 
rain  on  such  a  district  or  region  of  country  as  represented 
by  Fig.  7,  we  copy  from  Morton's  Cyclopedia  of  Agricul- 
ture : 


DRAINAGE   REMOVES   SURPLUS   WATER.  101 

"When  rain  falls  on  a  tract  of  country,  part  of  it  flows  over  the 
surface,  and  makes  its  escape  by  the  numerous  natural  and  artificial 
courses  which  may  exist,  while  another  portion  is  absorbed  by  the 
soil  and  the  porous  strata  which  lie  under  it 

"  Let  the  following  diagram  represent  such  a  tract  of  country,  and 


let  the  dark  portions  represent  clay  or  other  impervious  strata,  while 
the  lighter  portions  represent  layers  of  gravel,  sand  or  chalk,  permit- 
ting a  free  passage  to  water. 

*'  When  rain  falls  in  such  a  district,  after  sinking  through  the  sur- 
face layer  (represented  in  the  diagram,  by  a  narrow  band),  it  reaches 
the  stratified  layers  beneath.  Through  these  it  still  further  sinks, 
if  they  are  porous,  until  it  reaches  some  impervious  stratum,  which 
arrests  its  directly  downward  course,  and  compels  it  to  find  its  way 
along  its  upper  surface.  Thus,  the  rain  which  falls  on  the  space 
represented  between  2  anS  4,  is  compelled,  by  the  impervious  strata, 
to  flow  toward  3.  Here  it  is  at  once  absorbed,  but  is  again  immedi- 
ately arrested  by  the  impervious  layer  5 ;  it  is,  therefore,  compelled 
to  pass  through  the  porous  stratum  3,  along  the  surface  of  5  to  1, 
where  it  pours  forth  in  a  fountain,  or  forms  a  morass  or  swamp,  pro 
portionate  in  size  or  extent  to  the  tract  of  country  between  2  and  4, 
or  the  quantity  of  rain  which  falls  upon  it.  In  such  a  case  as  is 
here  represented  it  will  be  obvious  that  the  spring  may  often  be  at 
a  great  distance  from  the  district  from  which  it  derives  its  supplies ; 
and  this  accounts  for  the  fact,  that  drainage  works  on  a  large  scale 
sometimes  materially  lessen  the  supply  of  water  at  places  remote 
from  the  scene  of  operations. 

"  In  the  instance  given  above,  the  water  forming  the  spring  is  rep- 
resented as  gaining  access  to  the  porous  stratum,  at  a  point  where 
it  crops  out  from  beneath  an  impervious  one,  and  as  passing  along 
to  its  point  of  discharge  at  a  considerable  depth,  and  under  several 
layers  of  various  characters.  Sometimes,  in  an  undulating  country, 
large  tracts  may  rest  immediately  upon  some  highly  porous  stratum, 
rendering  the  necessity  for  draining  less  apparent;  while  the  adjoin- 
ing parts  of  the  country  may  be  full  of  springs  and  marshes,  arising 


102  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

partly  from  the  rain  itself,  which  falls  in  these  latter  districts,  being 
unable  to  find  a  way  of  escape,  and  partly  from  the  natural  drainage 
of  the  more  porous  soils  adjoining  being  discharged  upon  it. 

"Again :  the  higher  parts  of  hilly  ground  are  sometimes  composed 
of  very  porous  and  absorbent  strata  (1,  2,  3,  Fig.  8),  while  the  lower 
portions,  4,  5,  are  more  impervious,  the  soil  and  subsoil  being  of  a 
very  stiff  and  retentive  description.  In  this  case,  the  water  collected 
by  the  porous  layers  is  prevented  from  finding  a  ready  exit,  when  it 
reaches  the  impervious  layers,  by  the  stiff  surface  soil.  The  water 
is  by  this  means  dammed  up,  in  some  measure,  and  acquires  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  pressure,  and,  forcing  itself  to  the  day  at  various 
places,  it  forms  those  extensive  "weeping"  banks,  as  at  6, 6,  7,  which 
have  such  an  injurious  effect  upon  many  of  our  mountain  pastures. 
This  was  the  form  of  spring  or  swamp,  to  the  removal  of  which  Elk- 
ington  principally  turned  his  attention;  and  the  following  diagram, 
taken  from  a  description  of  his  system  of  draining,  will  explain  the 
stratification  and  springs  referred  to  more  clearly : 


FIG.  8. 

Fig.  8,  although  copied  from  Morton's  Cyclopedia  of 
Agriculture,  was,  in  all  probability,  an  ideal  section,  yet 
it  is  a  correct  representation  of  a  portion  of  the  country 
between  Canton  and  Massillon,  in  Stark  county.  About 
three  miles  west  of  Canton  the  railroad  passes  through 
what  is  familiarly  known  in  the  locality  as  Buck's  Hill, 
composed  of  drift  (sand  and  gravel),  as  represented  at  1, 
2,  3;  this  drift  rests  upon  another  drift  formation,  "hard 
pan,"  or  blue  clay,  5.  Wells  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
the  hill  have  been  sunk  66  feet,  in  pure  sand  and  gravel, 
before  reaching  the  stratum,  5.  Originally  (in  1800,  up 
to  1818),  most  of  the  land  lying  along  the  line  of  railroad, 
from  the  bed  of  the  Nimishillen,  7,  for  a  mile  or  more  to- 


DRAINAGE   REMOVES   SURPLUS    WATER.  103 

ward  the  hill,  was  a  perfect  morass,  as  represented  in  the 
figure ;  but  occasional  open  drains  and  wells  have  now 
rendered  it  good  arable  land,  although,  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  creek,  evidences  of  the  former  marshy  con- 
dition yet  remain. 

The  precise  quantity  of  water  required  for  the  agricul- 
tural purposes  of  any  district  depends  upon  the  nature 
of  the  soil  and  the  crops,  and  the  position  of  the  district 
in  relation  to  the  surrounding  country.  Thus,  if  a  perme- 
able soil  occupy  an  elevated  site,  the  water  deposited 
upon  it  will  pass  rapidly,  and,  perhaps,  before  serving  for 
the  germination  or  nutriment  of  the  plant.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  as  is  the  far  more  common  case  in  this  coun- 
try, the  soil  be  of  a  retentive  character,  and  the  site  low 
in  relation  to  other  districts,  the  water  will  be  kept  while 
the  soil  becomes  saturated  to  so  great  an  extent,  that  the 
processes  of  vegetable  germination  and  growth  are  greatly 
impeded.  The  soil  exists  in  one  of  three  conditions:  1. 
In  the  form  of  clay,  being  a  dense  mass  of  finely  com- 
minuted particles,  but  all  of  a  highly  tenacious  kind ;  in 
a  state  of  slight  moisture,  it  becomes  a  clammy  paste, 
and  is  never  found  so  utterly  devoid  of  moisture  that  its 
constituent  particles  are  separable  ;  it  affords  no  passages 
for  water,  receiving  it  with  difficulty,  and  retaining  it  in 
the  same  way.  2.  In  the  form  of  sand  or  gravel,  the 
particles  of  which  are  seldom  or  never  united,  and  the 
soil  is,  therefore,  full  of  passages  or  canals  for  water. 
Soil  of  this  kind  has  no  power  either  to  oppose  the  ad- 
mission or  effect  the  retention  of  water  poured  upon  it. 
And,  3.  Existing  in  the  form  of  a  mixture  of  the  alu- 
minous, silicious,  and  calcareous  elements,  in  endless 
variety  of  proportions,  found  as  clods,  and  in  this  state 
affording  two  classes  of  passages  for  the  ingress  and 
permeation  of  water,  viz.:  those  remaining  between  the 


104  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

particles  which  are  congelated  in  each  clod,  and  those 
formed  by  the  spaces  between  the  clods.  The  former  are 
sometimes  called  pores,  the  latter  canals.  The  power  of 
admitting  and  retaining  or  discharging  water,  exerted  by 
these  mixed  soils,  will  exist  in  an  endless  variety  of  de- 
grees, according  to  the. mechanical  formation  of  the  con- 
stituent particles  and  clods.  The  state  of  soil  which  is 
most  favorable  for  the  germination  and  development  of 
the  plant,  is  that  of  moistures,  capable  of  being  readily 
crumbled  by  the  hand,  and  equally  removed  from  the  ad- 
hesive extreme  of  mud,  and  the  volatile  one  of  dust.  In 
this  condition  it  will  be  found  that  the  pores  are  filled  with 
water,  but  the  canals  are  not — these  latter  serving  as 
passages  for  the  air,  which  is  one  of  the  feeders  of  veget- 
able life;  and  we  can,  therefore,  readily  understand  that, 
when  water  exists  in  such  quantity  that  the  soil  is  satu- 
rated, and  all  the  pores  or  canals  filled,  its  condition  is 
unhealthy  for  the  growth  and  development  of  plants. 

The  following  extract  from  an  admirable  lecture  on 
agricultural  science,  by  Dr.  Madden,  quoted  by  the  Gene- 
ral Board  of  Health  in  their  "  Minutes  of  Information" 
although  of  considerable  length,  claims  a  space  here,  for 
the  valuable  information  it  conveys  on  the  fitness  of  soil 
for  promoting  vegetable  germination. 

"  The  first  thing  which  occurs  after  the  sowing  of  the  seed  is,  of 
course,  germination;  and  before  we  examine  how  this  proc'ess  may 
be  influenced  by  the  condition  of  the  soil,  we  must  necessarily  ob- 
tain some  correct  idea  of  the  process  itself.  The  most  careful  ex- 
amination has  proved  that  the  process  of  germination  consists  es- 
sentially of  various  chemical  changes,  which  require,  for  their  de- 
velopment, the  presence  of  air,  moisture,  and  a  certain  degree  of 
warmth.  Now  it  is  obviously  unnecessary  for  our  present  purpose, 
that  we  should  have  the  least  idea  of  the  nature  of  these  processes; 
all  we  require  to  do,  is  to  ascertain  the  conditions  under  which  they 
take  place ;  having  detected  these,  we  know  at  once  what  is  required 


DRAINAGE   REMOVES   SURPLUS   WATER.  105 

to  make  a  seed  grow.  These,  we  have  seen,  are  air,  moisture,  and  a 
certain  degree  of  warmth  ;  and  it  consequently  results,  that  when- 
ever a  seed  is  placed  in  these  circumstances,  germination  will  take 
place.  Viewing  matters  in  this  light,  it  appears  that  soil  does  ndt 
act  chemically  in  the  process  of  germination ;  that  its  sole  action  is 
confined  to  its  being  the  vehicle  by  means  of  which  a  supply  of  air 
and  moisture,  and  warmth,  can  be  continually  kept  up.  With  this 
simple  statement  in  view,  we  are  quite  prepared  to  consider  the  va- 
rious conditions  of  soil,  for  the  purpose  of  determining  how  far  these 
will  influence  the  future  prospects  of  the  crop,  and  we  shall  accord- 
ingly at  once  proceed  to  examine,  carefully,  into  the  mechanical  re- 
lations of  soil. 

"  Soil,  examined  mechanically,  is  found  to  consist  entirely  of  par- 
ticles of  all  shapes  and  sizes,  from  stones  and  pebbles,  down  to  the 
finest  powder ;  and  on  account  of  their  extreme  irregularity  of  shape, 
they  can  not  be  so  close  to  one  another,  as  to  prevent  there  being 
passages  between  them,  owing  to  which  circumstance  soil  in  the 
mass  is  always  more  or  less  porous.  If,  however,  we  proceed  to  ex- 
amine one  of  the  smallest  particles  of  which  soil  is  made  up,  we 
shall  find  that  even  this  is  not  always  solid,  but  is  much  more  fre- 
quently porous,  like  soil  in  the  mass.  A  considerable  portion  of 
this  finely  divided  part  of  soil,  the  impalpable  matter  as  it  is  gene- 
rally called,  is  found,  by  the  aid  of  the  microscope,  to  consist  of 
broken  down  vegetable  tissue,  so  that  when  a  small  portion  of  the 
finest  dust  from  a  garden  or  field,  is  placed  under  the  microscope, 
we  have  exhibited  to  us  particles  of  every  variety  of  shape  and  struc- 
ture, of  which  a  certain  part  is  evidently  of  vegetable  origin. 

"On  examining  a  perfectly  di~y  soil,  we  perceive  that  there  are 
two  distinct  classes  of  pores:  1.  The  large  ones,  which  exist  be- 
tween the  particles  of  soil ;  and,  2.  The  very  minute  ones,  which 
occur  in  the  particles  themselves ;  and,  whereas,  all  the  larger  pores, 
those  between  the  particles  of  soil,  communicate  most  freely  with  each 
other,  so  that  they  form  canals,  the  small  pores,  however  freely  they 
may  communicate  with  one  another  in  the  interior  of  the  particle 
in  which  they  occur,  have  no  direct  connection  with  the  pores  of 
the  surrounding  particles.  Let  us  now,  therefore,  trace  the  effect 
of  this  arrangement  If  the  soil  is  perfectly  dry,  the  canals  commu- 
nicating freely  at  the  surface  with  the  surrounding  atmosphere,  the 
whole  of  these  canals  and  pores  will,  of  course,  be  filled  with  air 
If,  in  this  condition,  a  seed  be  placed  in  the  soil,  you  at  once  per 


106  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

ceive  that  it  is  freely  supplied  with  air,  but  there  is  no  moisture; 
therefore,  when  soil  is  perfectly  dry,  a  seed  can  not  grow. 

"Let  us  turn  our  attention  now  to  that  state  of  the  soil  in  which 
\mter  has  taken  the  place  of  air,  or,  in  other  words,  the  soil  is  very 
wet.  If  we  observe  our  seed  now,  we  find  it  abundantly  supplied 
with  water,  but  no  air.  Here  again,  therefore,  germination  can  not 
take  place.  It  may  be  well  to  state  here,  that  this  can  never  occur 
exactly  in  nature,  because  water  has  the  power  of  dissolving  air  to 
a  certain  extent ;  the  seed  is,  in  fact,  supplied  with  a  certain  amount  of 
this  necessary  substance ;  and,  owing  to  this,  germination  does  take 
place,  although  by  no  means  under  such  advantageous  circumstances 
as  it  would,  were  the  soil  in  a  better  condition. 

"  We  pass  on  to  a  different  state  of  matters.  Let  us  suppose  the 
canals  are  open,  and  freely  supplied  with  air,  wrhile  the  pores  are 
filled  with  water.  While  the  seed  now  has  quite  enough  of  air 
from  the  canals,  it  can  never  be  without  moisture,  as  every  particle 
of  soil  which  touches  it  is  well  supplied  with  this  necessary  ingre- 
dient. This,  then,  is  the  proper  condition  of  the  plant  for  germina- 
tion, and,  in  fact,  for  every  period  of  the  plant's  development;  and 
this  condition  occurs  when  the  soil  is  moist,  but  not  wet — that  is  to 
say,  when  it  has  the  color  and  appearance  of  being  well  watered, 
but  when  it  is  still  capable  of  being  crumbled  to  pieces  by  the 
hands,  without  any  of  its  particles  adhering  together  in  the  familiar 
form  of  mud. 

"Let  us  observe  still  another  condition  of  soil:  in  this  instance, 
as  far  as  water  is  concerned,  the  soil  is  in  its  healthy  condition — it 
is  moist,  but  not  wet,  the  pores  alone  being  filled  with  water.  But 
where  are  the  canals  ?  We  see  them  in  a  few  places,  but  in,  by  far, 
the  greater  part  of  the  soil  none  are  to  be  perceived;  this  is  owing 
to  the  particles  of  soil  having  adhered  together,  and  thus,  so  far,  ob- 
literated interstitial  canals,  that  they  appear  only  like  pores.  This 
is  the  state  of  matters  in  every  clod  of  earth;  and  you  will  at  once 
perceive,  on  comparing  it  with  a  stone,  that  it  differs  from  it,  only 
in  possessing  a  few  pores  ;  which  latter,  while  they  may  form  a  res- 
ervoir for  moisture,  can  never  act  as  vehicles  for  the  food  of  plants, 
as  the  roots  are  not  capable  of  extending  their  fibers  into  the  in- 
terior of  a  clod,  but  are  at  all  times  confined  to  the  interstitial 
canals. 

"  With  these  four  conditions  before  us,  let  us  endeavor  to  apply 
them  practically,  to  ascertain  when  they  occur  in  our  fields,  and 
how  those  which  are  injurious  may  be  obviated. 


DRAINAGE   REMOVES    SURPLUS   WATER.  107 

"The  first  of  them  is  a  state  of  too  great  dryness,  a  very  rare 
condition,  in  this  climate  at  least;  in  fact,  the  only  case  in  which  it 
is  likely  to  occur  is  in  very  coarse  sands,  where  the  soil,  being 
chiefly  made  up  of  pure  sand  and  particles  of  flinty  matter,  contains 
comparitively  much  fewer  pores,  and,  from  the  large  size  of  the  in- 
dividual particles,  assisted  by  their  irregularity,  the  canals  are 
wider,  the  circulation  of  air  freer,  and,  consequently,  the  whole  is 
much  more  easily  dried.  When  this  state  of  matters  exists,  the 
best  treatment  is  to  leave  all  the  stones  which  occur  on  the  surface 
of  the  field,  as  they  cast  shades,  and  thus  retard  the  evaporation  of 
water. 

"  We  will  not,  however,  make  any  further  observations  on  this 
very  rare  case,  but  will  rather  proceed  to  much  more  frequent,  and, 
in  every  respect,  more  important  condition  of  soil — an  excess  of 
water. 

"  When  water  is  added  to  perfectly  dry  soil,  it,  of  course,  in  the 
first  instance,  fills  the  intestitial  canals,  and  from  these  enters  the 
pores  of  each  particle ;  and  if  the  supply  of  water  be  not  too  great 
the  canals  speedily  become  empty,  so  that  the  whole  of  the  fluid  is 
taken  up  by  the  pores;  this,  as  we  have  already  seen,  is  the  healthy 
condition  of  soil.  If,  however,  the  supply  of  water  be  too  great,  as 
is  the  case  when  a  spring  gains  admission  into  the  soil,  or  when  the 
sinking  of  the  fluid  through  the  canals  to  a  sufficient  depth  below 
the  surface  is  prevented,  it  is  clear  that  these  also  must  get  filled 
with  water  so  soon  as  the  pores  have  become  saturated.  This,  then, 
is  the  condition  of  undrained  soil. 

"Not  only  are  the  pores  filled,  but  the  interstitial  canals  are  like- 
wise full;  and  the  consequence  is,  that  the  whole  process  of  the 
germination  and  growth  of  vegetables  is  materially  interfered  with. 
We  shall  here,  therefore,  briefly  state  the  injurious  effects  of  an  ex- 
cess of  water,  for  the  purpose  of  impressing  more  strongly  on  your 
minds  the  necessity  of  thorough  draining,  as  the  first  and  most 
essential  step  toward  the  improvement  of  your  soil. 

The  first  great  effect  of  an  excess  of  water  is,  that  it  produces  a 
corresponding  diminution  of  the  amount  of  air  beneath  the  surface, 
which  air  is  of  the  greatest  possible  consequence  in  the  nutrition 
of  plants  ;  in  fact,  if  entirely  excluded,  germination  could  not  take 
place,  and  the  seed  sown  would,  of  course,  either  decay  or  lie  dor- 
mant. 

"  Secondly,  an  excess  of  water  is  most  hurtful,  by  reducing  con- 
siderably the  temperature  of  the  soil;  this  I  find,  by  careful  experi* 


108  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

inent,  to  be  to  the  extent  of  6J  degrees  Fahrenheit,  in  summer, 
which  amount  is  equivalent  to  an  elevation  above  the  level  of  the 
sea  of  1,950  feet.  So  that,  supposing  two  fields  lying  side  by  side, 
the  one  drained,  the  other  undrained,  and  supposing  them  both 
equally  well  cultivated,  there  will  be  nearly  as  much  difference  in 
the  amount  and  value  of  their  respective  crops,  as  if  the  drained 
one  was  situated  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  the  other  had  an  eleva- 
tion as  high  as  the  most  lofty  of  the  Pentland  Hills.  But,  beside 
this,  and  what  is  nearly  equally  bad,  the  temperature  is  rendered 
unnaturally  high  during  winter ;  whereas,  it  has  been  proved  that 
one  great  source  of  health  and  vigor  in  vegetation  is  the  great  dif- 
ference which  exists  between  the  temperature  of  summer  and  win- 
ter, which  difference  amounts,  in  dry  soil,  to  between  thirty  and 
forty  degrees;  while  in  soil,  very  much  injured  by  an  excess  of 
water,  the  whole  range  of  the  thermometer  throughout  the  year  will 
probably  not  exceed  from  six  to  ten  degrees. 

"These  are  the  chief  injuries  of  an  excess  of  water  in  soil  which 
affect  the  soil  itself.  There  are  very  many  others  affecting  the  cli- 
mate, etc. ;  but  these  are  not  so  connected  with  the  subject  in  hand  as 
to  call  for  an  explanation  here. 

"Of  course  all  these  injurious  effects  are  at  once  overcome  by 
thorough  draining,  the  result  of  which  is  to  establish  a  direct  com- 
munication between  the  interstitial  canals  and  the  drains,  by  which 
means  it  follows  that  no  water  can  remain  any  length  of  time  in 
these  canals,  without,  by  its  gravitation,  finding  its  way  to  the 
drains. 

"  Too  much  can  not  be  said  in  favor  of  pulverizing  the  soil ;  even 
thorough  draining  itself  will  not  supersede  the  necessity  of  perform- 
ing this  most  necessary  operation.  The  whole  valuable  effects  of 
plowing,  harrowing,  grubbing,  etc.,  maybe  reduced  to  this;  and 
almost  the  whole  superiority  of  garden  over  field  produce,  is  refer- 
able to  the  greater  perfection  to  which  this  pulverizing  of  the  soil 
can  be  carried. 

"  The  celebrated  Jethro  Tull  has  the  honor  of  having  first  directed 
the  farmer's  attention  forcibly  to  the  subject;  and  so  deeply  im 
pressed  was  he  with  its  infinite  importance,  that  he  believed  the  use 
of  manure  could  be  entirely  superseded  were  this  pulverizing  car- 
ried to  a  sufficient  extent. 

"The  whole  success  of  the  drill  husbandry  is  owing,  in  a  great 
measure,  to  its  enabling  you  to  stir  up  the  soil  well  during  the  pro- 
gress of  your  crop ;  which  stirring  up  is  of  no  value  beyond  its 


DRAINAGE   REMOVES   SURPLUS   WATER.  109 

effect  in  more  minutely  pulverizing  the  soil,  increasing,  as  far  as 
possible,  the  size  and  number  of  the  interstitial  canals. 

"  Lest  any  one  should  suppose  that  the  contents  of  these  inter- 
stitial canals  must  be  so  minute  that  their  -whole  amount  can  be  of 
but  little  consequence,  I  may  here  notice  the  fact,  that  in  moder- 
ately '.veil  pulverized  soil  they  amount  to  no  less  than  one  fourth  of 
the  whole  bulk  of  the  soil  itself;  for  example,  100  cubic  inches  of 
moist  soil  (that  is,  of  soil  in  which  the  pores  are  filled  with  water, 
while  the  canals  are  filled  with  air),  contain  no  less  than  25  cubic 
inches  of  air.  According  to  this  calculation,  in  a  field  pulverized  to 
the  depth  of  eight  inches,  a  depth  perfectly  attainable  on  most  soils 
by  careful  tillage,  every  imperial  acre  will  retain  beneath  its  surface 
no  less  than  12,545,280  inches  of  air.  A  familiar  illustration  of  the 
space  occupied  by  the  spaces  between  the  particles  of  loosened  soil 
is  afforded  by  the  fact  that  when  soil  is  disturbed  it  more  than  fills 
the  space  it  previously  occupied. 

"Taking  into  calculation  the  weight  of  soil,  we  find  that  with 
every  additional  inch  which  you  reduce  to  powder  (by  plowing,  for 
example,  nine  inches  in  place  of  eight),  you  call  into  activity  235 
tuns  of  soil,  and  render  it  capable  of  retaining  beneath  the  surface 
1,568,160  additional  cubic  inches  of  air.  And  to  take  one  more 
element  into  the  calculation,  supposing  the  soil  were  not  properly 
drained,  the  sufficient  pulverizing  would  increase  the  escape  of 
water  from  the  surface  by  upward  of  100  gallons  a  day. 

So  far  as  the  legal  distinction  between  water  of  pressure 
and  springs  is  concerned,  Judge  French  says : 

"  As  we  find  it  in  our  field,  it  is  neither  rain  water,  which  has 
there  fallen,  nor  spring  water,  in  any  sense.  It  has  been  appropri- 
ately termed  the  water  of  pressure,  to  distinguish  it  from  both  rain 
and  spring  water ;  and  the  recognition  of  this  term  will  certainly 
be  found  convenient  to  all  who  are  engaged  in  the  discussion  of 
drainage. 

"  The  distinction  is  important  in  a  legal  point  of  view,  as  relating 
to  the  right  of  the  land  owner  to  divert  the  sources  of  supply  to  mill 
streams,  or  to  adjacent  lower  lands.  It  often  happens  that  an  owner 
of  land  on  a  slope  may  desire  to  drain  his  field,  while  the  adjacent 
owner  below,  may  not  only  refuse  to  join  in  the  drainage,  but  may 
believe  that  he  derives  an  advantage  from  the  surface  washing  or 
the  percolation  from  his  higher  neighbor.  He  may  believe  that,  by 


L10  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

deep  drainage  above,  his  land  will  be  dried  up  and  rendered  worth- 
less ;  or,  he  may  desire  to  collect  the  water  which  thus  percolates, 
into  his  land,  and  use  it  for  irrigation,  or  for  a  water  ram,  or  for  the 
supply  of  his  barn-yard.  May  the  upper  owner  legally  proceed  witli 
the  drainage  of  his  own  land,  if  he  thus  interfere  with  the  interests 
of  the  man  below? 

"Again:  wherever  drains  have  been  opened,  we  already  hear 
complaints  of  their  effects  upon  wells.  In  our  good  town  of  Exeter, 
there  seems  to  be  a  general  impression  on  one  street,  that  the 
drainage  of  a  swamp,  formerly  owned  by  the  author,  has  drawn 
down  the  wTells  on  that  street,  situated  many  rods  distant  from  the 
drains.  Those  wells  are  upon  a  sandy  plain,  with  underlying  clay, 
and  the  drains  are  cut  down  upon  the  clay,  and  into  it,  and  may 
possibly  draw  off  the  water  a  foot  or  two  lower  through  the  whole 
village — if  we  can  regard  the  water  line  running  through  it  as  the 
surface  of  a  pond,  and  the  swamp  as  a  dam  across  its  outlet. 

"  The  rights  of  land  owners,  as  to  running  water  over  their  prem- 
ises, have  been  fruitful  of  litigation,  but  are  now  well  defined.  In 
general,  in  the  language  of  Judge  Story — 

"  'Every  proprietor  upon  each  bank  of  a  river  is  entitled  to  the 
land  covered  with  water  in  front  of  his  bank  to  the  middle  thread 
of  the  stream,  etc.  In  virtue  of  this  ownership,  he  has  a  right  to 
the  use  of  the  water  flowing  over  it  in  its  natural  current,  without 
diminution  or  obstruction.  The  consequence  of  this  principle  is, 
that  no  proprietor  has  a  right  to  use  the  water  to  the  prejudice  of 
another.  It  is  wholly  immaterial  whether  the  party  be  a  proprietor 
above  or  below,  in  the  course  of  the  river,  the  right  being  common 
to  all  the  proprietors  on  the  river.  No  one  has  a  right  to  diminish 
the  quantity  which  will,  according  to  the  natural  current,  flow  to 
the  proprietor  below,  or  to  throw  it  back  upon  a  proprietor  above.' 

"Chief  Justice  llichardson,  of  New  Hampshire,  thus  briefly 
states  the  same  position: 

" '  In  general,  every  man  has  a  right  to  the  use  of  the  water  flow- 
ing in  a  stream  through  his  land,  and  if  any  one  divert  the  water 
from  its  natural  channel,  or  throw  it  back,  so  as  to  deprive  him  of 
the  use  of  it,  the  law  will  give  him  redress.  But  one  man  may  ac- 
quire, by  grant,  a  right  to  throw  the  water  back  upon  the  land  of 
another,  and  long  usage  may  be  evidence  of  such  a  grant.  It  is, 
however,  well  settled  that  a  man  acquires  no  such  right  by  merely 
being  the  first  to  make  use  of  the  water.' 

"We  are  not  aware  that  it  has  ever  been  held  by  any  court  of 


DRAINAGE    REMOVES   SURPLUS   WATER.  Ill 

law,  or  even  asserted,  that  a  land  owner  may  not  intercept  the  per- 
colating water  in  his  soil  for  any  purpose  and  at  his  pleasure;  nor 
have  we  in  mind  any  case  in  which  the  draining  out  of  water  from 
a  well,  by  drainage  for  agricultural  purposes,  has  subjected  the 
owner  of  the  land  to  compensation. 

"It  is  believed  that  a  land  owner  has  the  right  to  follow  the  rules 
of  good  husbandry  in  the  drainage  of  his  land,  so  far  as  the  water 
of  pressure  is  concerned,  without  responsibility  for  remote  conse- 
quences to  adjacent  owners,  to  the  owners  of  distant  wells  or  springs, 
that  may  be  affected,  or  to  mill  owners. 

"  In  considering  the  effect  of  drainage  on  streams  and  rivers,  it 
appears  that  the  results  of  such  operations,  so  far  as  they  can  be 
appreciated,  are  to  lessen  the  value  of  water  powers,  by  increasing 
the  flow  of  water  in  times  of  freshets,  and  lessening  it  in  times  of 
drought.  It  is  supposed  in  this  country,  that  clearing  the  land  of 
timber  has  sensibly  affected  the  value  of  '  mill  privileges,'  by  in- 
creasing evaporation,  and  diminishing  the  streams.  No  mill  owner 
has  been  hardy  enough  to  contend  that  a  land  owner  may  not  le- 
gally cut  down  his  own  timber,  whatever  the  effect  on  the  streams. 
So,  we  trust,  no  court  will  ever  be  found,  which  will  restrict  the 
land  owner  in  the  highest  culture  of  his  soil,  because  his  drainage 
may  affect  the  capacity  of  a  mill  stream  to  turn  the  water  wheels." 


CHAPTER  V. 

* — 

DRAINAGE  LENGTHENS  THE  SEASONS. 

WE  have  already  shown  that  drainage  removes  stagnant 
surface  water,  and  surplus  ground  water.  The  removal 
of  these  waters,  as  a  necessary  consequence,  prepares  the 
soil  at  an  earlier  period,  for  the  labors  of  the  farmer,  than 
if  left  to  natural  causes  alone. 

The  time  required  for  the  "  settling  of  the  soil,"  after 
the  winter  frost  passes  from  it,  depends,  to  a  great  ex- 
tent, upon  its  porous  or  its  retentive  character,  is  every- 
where known  and  conceded.  The  deep  gravelly  loam  is 
seen  to  be  very  soon  free  from  water,  while  the  heavy  clay 
requires  a  long  time  to  become  fit  for  cultivation.  In  the 
one  case  the  soil  is  fully  drained — in  the  other  the  water 
mostly  passes'  off  by  the  slow  process  of  evaporation. 
The  water  being  removed,  prepares  the  ground  to  receive  to 
its  fullest  extent,  the  beneficial  influence  of  the  sun's  warm- 
ing rays,  to  impart  to  the  soil  the  proper  temperature  for  the 
germination  and  growth  of  seeds  and  plants.  Thoroughly 
drained  soil  is  not  unfrequently  ready  for  the  plow  from 
ten  to  fifteen  days  earlier,  than  a  similar  undrained  one. 
Ten  days  of  advanced  growth  of  corn,  barley,  oats,  wheat 
or  potatoes,  have  often  protected  these  crops  from  the 
effects  of  drought,  early  frost,  or  insects.  Ten  to  fifteen 
days  of  advanced  maturity,  would  fully  protect  the  earlier 
varieties  of  wheat  grown  in  Ohio,  from  the  ravages  of 
the  midge  (cecidomyia  tritici),  or  the  blighting  effects  of 
rust.  The  same  advanced  growth  may  secure  the  entire 
corn  crop  against  early  frosts,  because  in  less  time  than 
that  assumed,  corn  passes  from  the  milky  stage,  when  it 

(112) 


DRAINAGE   LENGTHENS   THE   SEASONS.  113 

would  not  require  a  severe  frost  to  ruin  it,  to  the  glazed 
stage,  when  it  is  perfectly  secure  from  the  action  of  or- 
dinary fall  frosts.  Potatoes,  in  the  same  time,  would  be 
so  far  advanced  as  to  be  enabled,  much  better,  to  with- 
stand the  drought — such  as  we  had  in  Ohio  in  1854  and 
1859 — when  the  very  early  potatoes  did  well  enough,  but 
the  late  ones  were  almost  an  entire  failure.  Fifteen  days 
of  advanced  maturity  of  the  oat  crop  in  Ohio,  in  1858, 
would  have  saved  the  entire  crop  from  the  blight  or  rust ; 
and  thorough  drainage  will  place  these  fifteen  days  at  the 
farmer's  disposal. 

In  what  manner  will  drainage  prepare  the  soil  fifteen 
days  sooner  than  an  undrained  soil  ?  In  the  first  place, 
the  autumn  rains  will  not  so  thoroughly  stagnate  in  the 
soil,  as  they  necessarily  must,  in  an  undrained  one,  be- 
cause they  will  drain  off  all  the  superfluous  moisture  be- 
tween the  drain  and  the  frozen  surface  during  the  fall  and 
winter ;  then,  in  the  spring  time,  drain  off  all  the  mois- 
ture from  the  surface,  as  it  finds  its  way  into  the  soil. 

In  order  to  demonstrate  why  drained  soil  is  in  order  to 
be  cultivated  in*  the  spring  time,  so  much  sooner  than  un- 
drained, we  introduce  the  following  table  copied  from  the 
Saxony  experiments  at  Tharand : 
11 


114 


LAND    DRAINAGE. 


1             II 

H 

o  £ 

H 

-; 

H 

_;       i 

Kj 

Hi 

1853. 

—  -| 

1853. 

2-3 

2:1 

1853. 

£.3 

gj 

1853. 

g.= 

2,  = 

£•! 

31 

~! 

C_""3 

-  "i 

~  % 

~  "? 

=•"5 

Feb. 

•*  S- 

?H 

Mar. 

•"'  -. 

~*  2. 

July. 

r-  5 

-'§- 

Aug. 

•~    £ 

i.  3 

e 

c 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

a 

5 

i 

36.5 

36.5 

1 

24. 

33.8 

1 

67. 

54.5 

1 

56.5 

56.7 

2 

31. 

37 

2 

23. 

33. 

2 

54.5 

54.5 

2 

56.5 

56.7 

3 

29. 

37.5 

3 

26.6 

33. 

3 

55.4 

54.5 

3 

71. 

56.7 

4 

31. 

37.4 

4 

20.7 

33. 

4 

53.6 

54.5 

4 

64.4 

56.5 

5 

31. 

38. 

5 

24. 

33. 

5 

60. 

54.5 

5 

64.4 

56.7 

6 

31. 

38. 

6 

33. 

33.5 

6 

63.5 

54.5 

6 

55.4 

56.5 

7 

30. 

38. 

7 

85. 

33.8 

7 

74.5 

54.5 

7 

55.4 

56. 

8 

32. 

38. 

8 

38. 

35. 

8 

78.8 

54.5 

8 

54.5 

56. 

9 

32. 

38. 

9 

31. 

35. 

9 

80. 

55. 

9 

48.2 

55.4 

10 

25. 

38. 

10 

32. 

35. 

10 

78.8 

55. 

10 

55.4 

56. 

11 

27.5 

38. 

11 

27. 

36. 

11 

62.- 

55. 

11 

53.6 

56. 

12 

28.5 

37.4 

12 

29. 

36. 

12 

62. 

55. 

12 

55.4 

56. 

13 

22. 

37.5 

13 

33. 

36.5 

13 

73.4 

54. 

13 

54.5 

56. 

14 

23. 

37. 

14 

33. 

36. 

14 

71.6 

53.6 

14 

56. 

56. 

15 

21. 

36.5 

15 

36.5 

36.5 

15 

64.4 

54.5 

15 

57. 

55.4 

16 

21. 

35.6 

16 

24. 

36. 

16 

62.6 

54. 

16 

56.5 

55. 

17 

2l'. 

34.2 

17 

17.6 

36. 

17 

69. 

54. 

17 

57.2 

55. 

18 

15.8 

34.2 

18 

17.6 

36. 

18 

64.4 

54. 

18 

56.5 

55. 

19 

19.5 

35. 

19 

19.4 

36. 

19 

65.5 

54.5 

19 

57.2 

55. 

20 

21. 

35. 

20 

17.6 

36. 

20 

55.4 

54. 

20 

66.2 

54.5 

21 

23. 

34. 

21 

21.2 

35. 

21 

56. 

54. 

21 

71. 

54.5 

22 

24.8 

33.8 

22 

24. 

36. 

22 

69. 

54.5 

22 

78.8 

54.5 

23 

26.6 

33.8 

23 

23. 

36. 

23 

60.8 

53.6 

23 

82.4 

54. 

24 

26.6 

33.8 

24 

22. 

36. 

24 

62. 

54. 

24 

78. 

54.5 

25 

24. 

33.8 

25 

2S'. 

36. 

25 

77. 

54.5 

25 

68. 

54.5 

26 

16.5 

33.8 

26 

21.2 

36. 

26 

69.8 

54.5 

26 

67. 

54.5 

27 

28.5 

33.8 

27 

17.6 

36. 

27 

69.8 

55.5 

27 

57.2 

55. 

28 

27.5 

34. 

28 

17.6 

36. 

28 

77. 

56.' 

28 

60. 

55. 

29 

20. 

36. 

29 

73.4 

56.5 

29 

62. 

55. 

30 

26.6 

36. 

30 

68. 

56.7 

30 

52. 

56.5 

31 

27.5 

36. 

31 

64.4 

57. 

31 

67. 

56.5 

This  table  shows,  that  during  the  months  of  February 
and  March,  the  water  issuing  from  the  drains  had  a  much 
higher  temperature  than  the  atmosphere,  and  that  during 
the  months  of  July  and  August,  the  drain  water  was 
much  cooler  than  the  atmosphere.  On  the  18th  of  Feb- 
ruary, the  temperature  of  the  air  was  15*8°  Fahr.,  or 
16-2°  below  freezing  point,  while  the  drain  water  stood  at 
34-2°,  or  18-0°  above  the  air. 

The  following  table  gives  the  mean  monthly  tempera- 


DRAINAGE   LENGTHENS    THE    SEASONS. 

ture  of  the  atmosphere  at  8  A.  M .,  and  4  P.  M.,  also  of  the 
drainage  water  at  the  same  periods  at  Tharand,  Saxony : 


Mean  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  at 

Mean  tempera- 
ture of  the  drain- 

Mean tempera- 
ture of  air  at 

Mean   tempera- 
ture of  drainage 

8A.M. 

age  water  at 

4  P.  M. 

water  at 

8  A.  M. 

4  P.  M. 

1853. 

February, 

26. 

35.6 

27. 

35.6 

March, 

25. 

35. 

31. 

35. 

April, 

38.7 

38. 

42. 

38. 

May, 

51. 

44.6 

61. 

44.6 

June, 

62. 

50. 

66. 

50. 

July, 

67. 

53.6 

72.5 

53.6 

August, 

61. 

54.5 

67. 

54. 

September, 

56.7 

53.6 

60.5 

53.6 

October, 

49. 

49. 

55. 

49. 

November, 

37.4 

46.4 

38.5 

47. 

December, 

24. 

37.4 

24. 

37.4 

1854. 

January, 

29. 

34.2 

31. 

34.5 

Mean    for 

the  year, 

43. 

44. 

46.5 

44.4 

From  this  we  learn  that  the  temperature  of  the  air  for 
the  months  December,  January,  February  and  March,  was 
below  freezing  point  (32°),  while  the  temperature  of  the 
drain  water,  during  this  entire  period,  was  from  2*2°  to 
3'6°,  above  the  freezing  point ;  consequently,  the  drains 
were  discharging  water  during  the  entire  winter,  and 
when  spring  came,  the  soil  was  not  saturated  with  autumn 
and  winter  rains,  as  undrained  soils  necessarily  are. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  temperature  has  considerable 
influence  on  the  discharge  of  water  from  the  drains. 
The  observations  recorded  in  the  following  table,  were 
made  at  Tharand,  in  Saxony,  to  determine  the  influ- 
ence of  temperature  upon  the  discharge  of  water  from 
drains. 

The  following  statements  and  observations  are  given 
as  theory  only — that  is,  theory  in  its  true  sense — infer- 
ences based  upon  facts  or  actual  observations,  in  contra- 


116 


LAND   DRAINAGE. 


distinction  to  the  usual  definition  of  theory,  viz :  specu- 
lations, or  hypothesis  to  explain  facts  or  phenomenon. 

TABULAE  STATEMENT  SHOWING  THE  INFLUENCE  OP  TEMPERATURE  UPON  THE 
DISCHARGE  OF  WATER  FROM  THE  DRAINS  J  ALSO,  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  RAINS 
UPON  THE  DISCHARGE  FROM  DRAINS. 


Temp.  of  atmosphere. 

Quantity  of  Rain 
per  day,  per  acre, 
in  gallons. 

Discharge  of 
Drainage  Water, 
daily,  per  acre. 

Increase  com- 
pared with  the 
preceding  day. 

Mini- 
mum. 

Maxi- 
mum. 

1853. 

1 

March     7 

32. 

35.                    

280 

38 

"           8 

35. 

42.8 

1624 

2061 

1781 

"           9 

33.5 

42. 

1919 

3515 

1454 

"         10 

32. 

41. 

295 

4137 

622 

"         11 

26.6 

42. 



5614 

1477 

April       1 

24.8 

46.4 



2158 

1264 

"           2 

37.5 

45.5 

1255 

8605 

6447 

3 

33.8 

47.5 

295 

9410 

805 

1854. 

Feb.         6 

31. 

44. 

14541 

5653 

5018 

"           7 

44.6 

47. 

14614 

11462 

5809 

March     2 

28.4 

40. 



5245 

4831 

"          3 

28.4 

41. 



7619 

2374 

et              9 

39.2 

44.6 

5905 

12154 

4535 

Dec.      15 

32. 

49. 

32772 

7084 

5837 

"         16 

35. 

50. 

54178 

21463 

14379 

We  will  now,  in  addition  to  this  theory,  present  some 
facts,  or  rather  the  testimony  of  various  practical  farmers 
on  this  question,  and  none  more  to  the  point  than  the  fol- 
lowing :  At  an  agricultural  meeting  in  Boston,  Mr.  B.  F. 
Nourse,  of  Orington,  Me.,  who  was  present,  said  that 
drainage  on  his  farm  "  had  put  his  springy,  cold  lands,  in 
good  working  condition,  earlier  in  the  season,  than  any 
other  in  the  neighborhood.  One  lot  drained  in  1852,  was 
in  good  working  condition  as  soon  as  the  frost  was  out. 
Before  drainage,  cattle  could  not  cross  it  early  in  June 
without  miring.  It  enabled  the  later  as  well  as  the  earlier 
cultivation  of  the  land.  He  had  plowed  as  late  as  the 
20th  of  November." 

Mr.  French,  in  his   essay  on  drainage,  refers  also  to 


DRAINAGE   LENGTHENS   THE   SEASONS.  117 

Mr.  Nourse's  experience,  making  mention  of  a  piece  of 
corn  he  planted  in  this  land  on  a  drizzling  rain,  after  a. 
storm  of  two  days.  The  corn  came  up  and  grew  well ; 
although  on  a  clayey  loam,  formerly  as  wet  as  the  ad- 
joining grass  field,  over  which  oxen  and  carts  could  not 
pass  on  the  day  of  this  planting,  without  cutting  through 
the  turf  and  miring  deeply. 

Messrs.  Maxwell  Brothers,  of  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  in  a 
statement  of  draining  done  on  their  farm  in  1855,  and 
which  received  the  first  premium  of  the  State  Agricultu- 
ral Society,  say  they  underdrained  one  clayey  lot,  which 
previously  "  it  was  quite  impracticable  to  plow  or  culti- 
vate in  a  wet  time,  and  consequently  it  was  very  difficult 
to  get  in  a  spring  crop  in  season.".  After  underdraining 
"  they  could  cultivate  immediately  after  rains  with  ad- 
vantage," and,  of  course,  get  in  their  crops  much  more 
seasonably  than  before.  Mr.  Yeomans,  another  central 
New  York  farmer  and  nurseryman,  states  that  on  his 
drained  lands  "  the  ground  becomes  almost  as  dry,  in  two 
or  three  days  after  the  frost  comes  out  in  spring,  or  after 
a  heavy  rain,  as  it  would  do  in  as  many  weeks  before 
draining,"  and  the  frost  leaves  drained  land  at  least  a 
week  sooner  than  that  which  remains  undrained. 

It  is  a  weighty  argument  for  draining,  that  it  relieves 
the  ground  of  surplus  water  early  in  the  spring,  and  so 
enables  the  work  of  the  farmer  and  gardener  to  commence 
earlier  than  it  otherwise  could.  It  also  makes  that  work 
easier  and  pleasanter.  When  the  ground  is  undrained,  it 
can  not  become  dry,  except  by  evaporation,  or  by  the 
oozing  away  of  the  water,  particle  by  particle,  through  a 
long  reach  of  stiff  soil,  into  some  natural  outlet.  Mean- 
while, the  farmer  must  sit  with  folded  hands  in  compara- 
tive idleness,  knowing  that  by  the  time  his  land  had  be- 
come dry,  his  work  will  accumulate  and  press  upon  him 


1  {  8  LAM)    DRAINAGE. 

itli  a  burden  he  can  hardly  bear.  It  would  not  be  strange 
if  some  of  that  work  should  be  left  undone,  or  be  slighted. 
Let  but  suitable  drains  be  cut  through  that  land,  and  the 
melting  snows  and  drenching  rains  would  speedily  find 
their  way  in  these  channels,  and  leave  the  ground  dry  and 
warm,  and  ready  for  tillage  several  weeks  earlier  than 
lelds  not  so  treated.  It  would  tend  to  relieve  farm  life 
of  a  great  objection  to  it,  in  many  minds,  viz:  that  it 
imposes  such  hurrying  and  exhausting  labors  at  particu- 
lar seasons,  and  especially  in  spring.  It  would  enable 
he  farmer  to  get  certain  crops  into  the  ground  earlier, 
and  so  make  sure  of  a  vigorous  growth  before  the 
h-oughts  of  midsummer,  and  of  maturity  before  the 
frosts  of  autumn.  The  farmer  at  the  extreme  north,  who 
sometimes  repines  at  the  shortness  of  the  growing  season, 
and  the  coldness  of  his  soil,  would  thus  practically  gain 
almost  a  degree  of  south  latitude,  without  the  necessity 
of  selling  his  farm  and  moving  his  household  gods. 


CHAPTER    VI. 


DRAINAGE  DEEPENS  THE  SOIL. 

IT  is  a  most  important  fact  that  drainage  "deepens  the 
soil,"  but  in  what  manner  this  desideratum  is  accomplished 
none  of  the  writers  on  the  subject  (whose  works  we  have 
had  the  privilege  of  perusing)  appear  to  explain.  One 
writer1  says: 

"The  effects  of  thorough  draining  in  deepening  the  soil,  are  read- 
ily seen  in  a  comparison  of  the  characteristics  of  those  wet  and 
retentive,  with  those  either  naturally  or  artificially  of  a  porous  nature. 

"All  heavy  soils  must  be  shallow  from  the  influence  of  stagnant 
water — of  water  which  saturates  the  surface,  not  being  able  to  pass 
away  by  filtration.  Every  fall  of  water  gives  a  mortar-like  consist- 
ency to  such  a  soil,  and  as  the  moisture  passes  off  by  the  slow  pro- 
cess of  evaporation,  it  becomes  baked  and  brick-like,  instead  of  light 
and  friable.  If  plowed  when  wet,  it  is  entirely  unfit  for  the  growth 
of  crops;  if  stirred  when  dry,  it  turns  up  in  clods  and  lumps;  in 
either  case,  it  is  only  after  much  labor  that  any  finely  pulverized 
earth  is  obtained  to  support  and  nourish  vegetable  growth,  and  an 
inferior  crop  is  ever  the  result.  Saturation,  without  filtration,  kills 
the  productive  power  of  any  soil — makes  it  hard,  shallow  and  sterile, 
however  rich  in  every  element  of  fertility  it  may  be,  when  differ- 
ently situated  in  the  single  circumstance  of  drainage. 

"  Porous,  or  well  drained  soils,  on  the  contrary,  never  retain,  even 
if  they  become  saturated  with  water.  The  surplus  moisture  filtrates 
at  once  into  the  drains,  leaving  the  surface  loose  and  friable.  Such 
a  soil  can  be  plowed  at  any  seasonable  time,  and  turns  up  mellow 
earth,  readily  fitted  as  a  seed  bed  for  any  crop.  Such  a  soil  invites 
the  roots  of  plants  down,  offering  them  food  instead  of  a  stone-like 
earth,  and  every  year  deepens  the  area  of  vegetable  growth,  until  the 
full  depth  is  reached  to  which  it  has  been  drained." 

1  Editor,  Country  Gentleman. 


120  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

But  then,  after  all,  we  have  no  explanation  of  how  the 
soil  is  deepened,  other  than  it  becomes  so  by  thorough 
drainage.  The  editor  then  produces  the  following  capi- 
tal statement  of  the  fact,  if  any  were  needed,  to  prove 
that  drainage  deepens  the  soil : 

"That  draining  deepens  tlie  soil,  we  will  bring  a  single  instance 
to  show — one  which  confirms  every  point  stated  above.  It  is  con- 
densed from  a  letter  from  that  pioneer  drainer  and  pioneer  of  good 
farmers,  John  Johnston,  near  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  and  was  published  in 
the  Country  Gentleman,  of  January  19,  1854.  He  says: 

"  '  Last  spring  I  concluded  to  plow  a  clayey  field,  containing  forty 
acres,  only  once  for  wheat,  and  that  after  harvest.  Previous  to  drain- 
ing, it  was  one  of  my  wettest  fields,  and  in  dry  weather,  even  in  April 
and  May,  was  very  hard  to  plow,  often  having  to  get  the  coulters  and 
shares  sharped  every  day,  when  we  used  wrought  iron  shares.  Owing 
to  the  great  drought  before,  during  and  after  harvest,  I  got  a  large 
plow  made,  so  that  I  could  put  two  or  more  yokes  of  cattle,  and  a 
pair  of  horses  to  it  if  necessary.  Immediately  after  harvest  we 
started  for  the  field,  oxen  and  drivers,  plowmen  and  horses ;  and 
beside  new  shares  on  the  plows,  took  other  new  shares  along,  ex- 
pecting to  be  obliged  to  change  every  day. 

'"When  we  got  to  the  field,  I  had  one  man  put  a  pair  of  horses 
before  the  large  plow,  and  try  to  open  the  land  with  a  shallow  fur- 
row. He  went  seventy  rods  away  and  back  without  even  a  stop, 
expect  when  the  clover  choked  the  plow.  I  then  put  the  plow  down 
to  eight  inches,  and  after  one  round,  to  nearly  ten,  and  we  went 
around  without  any  trouble.  His  furrow  was  over  nine  inches  deep, 
and  laid  as  perfect  as  could  be.  I  then  had  one  yoke  of  oxen  put 
behind  my  smallest  horses,  and  a  pair  of  horses  before  each  of  my 
other  plows,  and  they  plowed  the  field  with  perfect  case,  only 
changing  shares  twice. 

"  '  Although  the  field  was  undoubtedly  plowed  at  the  rate  of  nine 
inches  deep,  yet  the  clover  roots  went  deeper,  and  the  land  plowed  up 
as  mellow  as  any  loam;  whereas,  had  it  not  been  drained,  it  would 
have  broke  up  in  lumps  as  large  as  the  heads  of  horses  or  oxen.  A 
few  years  ago,  a  neighbor  broke  up  a  field  about  the  same  season, 
and  similar  land,  but  not  drained,  and  after  cultivating,  rolling  and 
harrowing,  he  had  to  employ  men  and  mallets  to  break  the  lumps, 
before  he  could  get  mold  to  cover  the  seed ;  and  after  all  did  not  get 


DRAINAGE   DEEPENS   THE   SOIL.  121 

the  third  of  a  crop  of  either  wheat  or  straw.  My  wheat  looks  as 
well  as  any  I  ever  saw,  and  I  doubt  not  it  will  be  a  good  crop.' 

<l  Those  farmers,  and  they  are  not  few,  who  have  had  experience 
in  the  cultivation  of  clayey  soils  when  dry,  or  in  any  state,  will  not 
wonder  that  Mr.  Johnston  exclaimed,  on  finding  this  great  change 
in  the  depth  and  friability  of  this  clay  bed:  'I  never  was  more 
agreeably  surprised  in  my  life — in  fact,  had  my  men  been  plowing 
in  gold  dust,  as  they  do  in  California,  I  should  have  been  no  more 
pleased.'  This  great  change  was  the  simple  effect  of  thorough 
drainage — the  soil,  no  longer  compelled  to  remain  saturated  with 
water,  lost  its  brick  and  morter  character,  and  became  a  live,  or  at 
least  an  active  and  productive  soil,  ready  to  reward  the  labor  of  the 
farmer." 

A  correspondent,  reviewing  Judge  French's  work  on 
drainage,  says : 

"  In  his  chapter  on  the  effects  of  drainage  upon  the  condition  of 
the  soil,  the  author  of  '  Farm  Drainage,'  announces  the  proposition 
that '  drainage  deepens  the  soil.'  How  this  effect  is  produced  we 
are  not  told,  though  a  hint  is  given  that  it  '  lowers  the  line  of  stand- 
ing water,'  and  then  we  are  treated  to  a  page  or  so  of  reasoning  and 
authorities  to  show  that  plants  send  their  roots  to  a  great  depth  if 
the  soil  admits.  We  are  told  also  that  the  roots  of  few  plants,  ex- 
cept those  of  an  aquatic  character,  will  grow  or  live  in  stagnant 
water.  Hence  we  are  left  to  conclude  that  '  drainage  deepens  the 
soil.'  " 

And  thus  it  is  with  all  authorities ;  they  state  the  fact, 
and  this  is,  perhaps,  all  that  the  present  locomotive,  tele- 
graph, lightning  press,  steamship  age  requires;  but  the 
inducement  for  those  to  underdrain  who  are  deprived  of 
the  privilege  of  seeing  and  examining  the  practical  work- 
ings of  underdraining,  will  be  much  stronger  if  the  chain 
of  the  argument  is  complete — not  having  a  single  defec- 
tive link  in  it. 

Alderman  Isaac  J.  Mechi,  speaking  of  draining  heavy 
lands,  says :  l  "  I  consider  it  an  axiom  that  the  friability 
of  the  "soil  will  be  in  proportion  to  the  rapidity  of  percola- 

_!  1  How  to  Farm  Profitably,  page  49. 

12 


122  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

tion.  Filtration  may  be  too  sudden,  as  is  well  enough 
shown  by  our  hot  sands  and  gravels ;  but  I  apprehend  no 
one  will  ever  fear  rendering  strong  clays  too  porous  and 
manageable.  The  object  of  drainage  is  to  impart  to  such 
soils  the  mellowness  and  dark  color  of  self-drained,  rich 
and  friable  soil.  That  perfect  drainage  and  cultivation 
will  ultimately  do  this  is  a  well-known  fact.  I  know  it  in 
the  case  of  my  own  garden.  How  it  does  so  I  am  not 
chemist  enough  to  explain  in  detail ;  but  it  is  evident  the 
eifect  is  produced  by  the  fibers  of  the  growing  crops  in- 
tersecting every  particle  of  the  soil,  which  they  never 
could  do  before  draining;  these,  with  their  excretions, 
decompose  on  the  removal  of  the  crop,  and  are  acted  on 
by  the  alternating  air  and  water,  which  also  decompose 
and  change,  in  degree,  the  inorganic  substances  of  the 
soil.  Thereby  drained  land,  which  was  before  impervious 
to  air  and  water,  and  consequently  unavailable  to  air  and 
roots,  to  worms,  or  to  vegetable  or  animal  life,  becomes, 
by  drainage,  populated  by  both,  and  is  a  great  chemical 
laboratory,  as  our  own  atmosphere,  subject  to  all  the 
changes  produced  by  animated  nature." 

The  explanation  given  above  is  not  much  more  satisfac- 
tory than  the  preceding  ones,  with  this  exception;  he 
hints  at  a  chemical  mean,  while  the  others  are  rather  in- 
clined to  attribute  it  entirely  to  a  mechanical  one ;  but 
both  leave  us  to  infer  that  the  roots  of  the  crops  have 
much  to  do  with  producing  the  mellow  condition  of  the 
soil.  A  correspondent  of  the  Country  Gentleman,  over 
the  signature  of  "  A  READING  FARMER,"  concludes  that 
the  roots  of  a  crop  are  not  essential  to  produce  this  con- 
dition, for  he  says : 

"  A  simple  experiment  will  convince  any  farmer  that  the  best  mean 
of  permanently  deepening  and  mellowing  his  soil,  is  by  thorough 
drainage,  to  afford  a  ready  exit  for  all  surplus  moisture.  Let  him 


DRAINING   DEEPENS    THE   SOIL.  123 

take,  in  spring,  while  wet,  a  quantity  of  his  hardest  soil — such  as  it 
is  almost  impossible  to  plow  in  summer — such  as  presents  a  baked 
and  brick-like  character,  under  the  influence  of  drought — and  place 
it  in  a  box  or  barrel  open  at  the  bottom,  and  frequently  during  the 
season  let  him  saturate  it  with  water.  He  will  find  it  gradually  be- 
coming more  and  more  porous  and  friable — holding  water  less  and 
less  perfectly  as  the  experiment  proceeds,  and  in  the  end  it  will  attain 
a  state  best  suited  to  the  growth  of  plants  from  its  deep  and  mellow 
character.  Here  we  have  the  result  of  drainage  as  it  acts  upon  the 
soil.  It  may  require  time  to  act — probably  on  heavy  clays  more 
than  a  single  season,  but  it  will  act  in  conjunction  with  other  natu- 
ral influences  to  give  depth  and  friability  to  the  soil." 

Now,  so  far  as  ourself  is  concerned,  we  agree  with  all 
the  authorities  we  have  quoted,  that  drainage  "  deepens 
the  soil,"  by  "lowering  the  line  of  standing  water,"  "by 
roots  of  crops,"  by  making  the  subsoil  accessible  to 
"  vegetable  and  animal  life;"  but,  at  the  same  time,  we  are 
of  opinion  that  there  is  another  agent,  which  we  find  no 
where  mentioned  in  this  connection,  whose  influence  in 
mellowing  and  deepening  the  soil  is  just  as  powerful  as 
the  causes  just  cited. 

Some  years  since,  in  conversation  with  a  very  intelli- 
gent gentleman,  a  farmer,  but  an  Englishman  by  birth,  we 
expressed  our  surprise  that  while  he  spoke  so  very  highly 
of  everything  English,  that  he  did  not  use  a  CrosskilPs 
clod  crusher,  that  being  eminently  English.  "  For  the 
very  reason,"  replied  he,  "  that  in  this  country  (U.  S.) 
we  have  an  infinitely  cheaper,  and  much  better  *  clod 
crusher*  than  Crosskill's,  or  any  the  English  can  invent, 
unless  the  gulf  stream  should  change  its  course."  What 
relation  possibly  could  exist  between  the  gulf  stream  and 
a  clod  crusher  we  could  certainly  not  divine,  and  as  we 
looked  inquiringly  into  our  friend's  face  to  assure  ourself 
of  his  sanity,  he  laughingly  replied :  "  I  mean  JACK  FROST." 
True  they  have  frosts  in  England,  but  no  comparison  to 
the  frosts  we  have  here — their  frosts  are  rather  mild 


124  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

and  good  natured,  like  John  Bull  himself,  after  he  has 
just  risen  from  the  enjoyment  of  his  favorite  roast  beef, 
while  the  frosts  here  act  with  the  force  of  a  locomotive 
running  eighty  miles  an  hour,  breaking  up,  tearing  up, 
and  smashing  things  generally.  Plow  up  a  stiff  clay  in 
the  fall,  and  let  Jack  Frost  have  fair  play  on  it  until  next 
April,  and  Crosskill's  clod  crusher  might  be  very  thank- 
ful if  the  next  harvest  awarded  it  a  second  premium, 
while  Jack  Frost  would  take  the  first  over  all  competitors. 

Jack  Frost,  in  our  opinion,  is  the  certain  other  agent 
above  alluded  to.  In  a  drained  clay,  the  late  fall  or  early 
winter  rains  always  leave  moisture  enough  for  the  frost 
to  congeal,  and  every  congelation  separates  particles  of  the 
soil ;  then,  when  a  thaw  takes  place,  the  water  is  borne 
off  into  the  drain.  In  fact,  in  three-feet  drains  the  pro- 
cess of  thawing  is  going  on  from  below  upward  all  the 
while ;  hence,  in  springtime,  drained  soil  is  dry,  or  ready 
to  work  in  a  few  days.  Jack  Frost,  in  this  manner,  in- 
stitutes beneath  the  soil,  in  the  words  of  Alderman  Me- 
chi,  "as  great  a  chemical  laboratory  as  our  own  atmos- 
phere." Our  own  observation  is,  that  mild  winters  are 
never  succeeded  by  as  bountiful  harvests  as  more  severe 
ones  are ;  but  then  winters  may  be  too  severe,  as  well  as 
too  mild ;  yet  drained  soils,  in  either  event,  fare  much 
better  than  undrained  ones. 

We  do  not  think  that  a  heavy  clay  soil,  drained  in  the 
spring  and  plowed  in  the  fall  of  the  same  year,  would 
plow  so  much  easier,  as  Johnston,  just  above  quoted,  states 
that  his  did,  or  as  that  did  in  the  following  extract  from 
a  correspondent  to  the  Country  Gentleman: 

"A  Western  New  York  farmer  had  a  wet  soil,  thoroughly  under- 
drained  with  tile — a  field  of  forty  acres.  Jt  had  always  been  very 
hard  and  difficult  to  plow  in  the  summer,  taking  a  strong  force  of 
teams,  and  wearing  out  the  plows  very  rapidly,  and  still  the  Avork 
MTU 4  doi.c  in  a  very  imperfect  manner.  After  draining,  he  concluded 


DRAINAGE   DEEPENS   THE   SOIL.  125 

to  plow  it  once  after  harvest  for  Avheat,  as  it  had  lain  for  some  time 
in  clover.  He  went  on  with  it  with  his  triple  teams  and  large  plows, 
but  found  that  a  single  team  could  turn  a  furrow  ten  inches  deep 
with  perfect  ease.  The  land  plowed  up  as  mellow  as  any  loam, 
where,  previous  to  draining,  at  that  season  it  would  have  broken  up 
in  lumps  as  large  as  the  heads  of  his  horses.  To  drainage  he  attrib- 
uted the  change,  and  we  have  no  doubt  that  the  deep  mellow  state 
of  the  soil  resulted  entirely  from  '  lowering  the  line  of  standing  wa- 
ter ; '  from  affording  it  opportunity  for  filtering  rapidly  through  the 
soil,  instead  of  rising  slowly  as  evaporated  by  the  heat  of  summer," 
Deepening  the  soil  is  certainly  a  great  desideratum  with 
every  intelligent  agriculturist,  since  every  inch  of  depth 
of  soil  gives  100  tuns  of  active  soil  per  acre  for  the  nu- 
trition of  the  growing  crop.  Those  who  argue  that  the 
cultivated  plants  obtain  all  their  nourishment  in  a  soil  8 
or  10  inches  deep,  certainly  have  never  investigated  the 
subject.  The  writer  remembers  distinctly  that  many  years 
ago  he  measured  the  roots  of  the  oat  plant,  found  in  the 
course  of  digging  a  cellar,  which  had  penetrated  the  soil 
to  a  depth  of  four  feet.  At  another  time,  under  similar 
circumstances,  the  roots  of  the  wheat  plant  were  found  to 
have  penetrated  to  a  depth  of  five  feet  and  several  inches. 
Roots  of  the  corn  plant  were  found  at  a  depth  of  three 
feet.  Mr.  Denton,  an  English  writer,  quoted  by  Judge 
French,  says: 

"  I  have  evidence  now  before  me  that  the  roots  of  the  wheat  plant, 
the  mangold  wurzel,  the  cabbage  and  the  white  turnip  frequently 
descend  into  the  soil  to  the  depth  of  three  feet.  I  have  myself  traced 
the  roots  of  wheat  nine  feet  deep.  I  have  discovered  the  roots  of 
perennial  grasses  in  drains  four  feet  deep ;  and  I  may  refer  to  Mr. 
Mercer,  of  Newton,  in  Lancashire,  who  has  traced  the  roots  of  rye 
grass  running  for  many  feet  along  a  small  pipe  drain,  after  descend- 
ing four  feet  through  the  soil.  Mr.  Hetley,  of  Orton,  assures  me 
that  he  discovered  the  roots  of  the  mangolds,,  in  a  recently  made 
drain,  five  feet  deep ;  and  the  late  Sir  John  Conroy  had  many  newly- 
made  drains,  four  feet  deep,  stopped  by  the  roots  of  the  same 
plants." 


126 


LAND    DRAINAGE. 


It  certainly  requires  no  argument  to  prove  that  the 
roots  of  plants  can  not  penetrate  to  these  depths  in  a 
"  water-logged,"  compact  clay  soil. 

The  following  cuts  (Figs.  9  and  10)  prove  that  drainage 
deepens  the  soil.  In  Fig.  9,  a  represents  the  surface  soil; 


FIG.  9. 


FIG.   10. 


the  line  between  a  and  b  the  line  of  capillary  attraction  ; 
c,  ground  water,  and  the  line  between  b  and  c  is  the  ground 
water  line.  The  plant  is  weak,  has  few  heads  and  very 
few  roots.  In  Fig.  10,  a  is  the  surface  soil;  e,  the  ground 
water;  //,  drains,  3  feet  deep;  cZ,  water  of  capillary  at- 
traction. It  is  a  well-known  fact,  that  the  roots  go  down 
to  the  water  table,  whether  it  is  at  5,  Fig.  9,  at  10  inches 
depth,  or  at  /,  Fig.  10,  at  3  feet  depth.  The  plant  in 


DRAINAGE   DEEPENS    THE   SOIL. 


127 


Fig.  10  is  thrifty,  has  large  and  many  roots  and  numerous 
heads.  We  have  known  a  single  grain  of  wheat,  on  such 
soils  in  Ohio  produce  60  perfect  heads  of  wheat.  In  the 
springtime  the  roots  and  foliage  of  wheat  on  such  soil  are 
represented  by  Fig.  11. 


FIG.  11. — Appearance  of  foliage  and  roots  of  the  wheat  plant  in  the  spring, 
on  an  underdrained  soil. 


CHAPTER    VII. 


DRAINAGE  WARMS  THE  UNDER  SOIL. 

PROFESSOR  JOHNSTON  says : 

"As  the  rain  falls  through  the  air  it  acquires  the  temperature  of 
the  atmosphere.  If  this  be  higher  than  that  of  the  surface  soil,  the 
latter  is  warmed  by  it ;  and  if  the  rains  be  copious,  and  sink  easily 
into  the  subsoil,  they  will  carry  this  warmth  with  them  to  the  depth 
of  the  drains.  Thus  the  under  soil,  in  well-drained  land,  is  not  only 
warmer,  because  the  evaporation  is  less,  but  because  the  rains  in  the 
summer  season  actually  bring  down  warmth  from  the  heavens  to  add 
to  their  natural  heat." 

There  are  two  reasons  why  wet  lands  are  always  cold, 
and  especially  so  in  the  spring :  one  is,  the  slow  conduc- 
tion of  heat  downward  through  a  body  of  water ;  the  other 
is,  the  heat  lost  in  the  evaporation  of  water.  When  heat 
is  applied  to  the  bottom  of  a  vessel  containing  water,  the 
portions  that  are  first  heated  expand,  become  specifically 
lighter,  ascend,  and  give  place  to  heavier  and  colder  por- 
tions. These,  in  turn,  are  heated  and  ascend,  and  thus  a 
constant  circuit  is  maintained  until  the  whole  is  equally 
heated.  When  heat  is  applied  to  the  top  of  a  vessel  of 
water,  the  upper  stratum  is  heated;  but  this  remains  on 
the  top,  and  no  movement  in  the  liquid  brings  unheated 
portions  in  contact  with  the  fire,  consequently  heat  passes 
downward  through  water  slowly,  and  with  great  difficulty. 
Hence,  a  wet  piece  of  land,  which  receives  its  heat  from 
the  sun's  rays  acting  on  the  surface,  will  be  a  long  time 
in  being  warmed  to  any  depth. 

The  removal  of  surplus  water  by  evaporation  interferes 
still  more  with  the  warming  of  the  soil  in  the  spring.  The 
vapor  of  water  may  be  described  as  a  compound  of  water 

(128) 


DRAINAGE   WARMS   THE   UNDER   SOIL.  129 

and  heat.  Not  more  certain  is  it  that  water  is  taken  from 
the  soil  by  evaporation,  than  that  a  definite  proportion  of 
heat  passes  off  with  it.  And  hence,  lands  from  which  a 
large  amount  of  water  has  to  be  removed  in  the  spring  by 
evaporation,  are  kept  cold  until  the  process  is  finished. 
The  cooling  effects  of  evaporation  are  highly  beneficial, 
under  some  circumstances,  but  on  wet  lands,  in  the  spring 
of  the  year,  they  are  anything  but  desirable. 

It  follows,  therefore,  that  the  way  to  make  cold,  wet 
lands  warm,  is  to  resort  to  thorough  drainage ;  and  this, 
experience  has  shown,  has  the  effect  to  raise  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  soil  many  degrees  through  the  whole  spring. 
Not  only  is  the  heat  communicated  by  the  sun's  rays  re- 
tained, instead  of  being  carried  off  in  converting  water 
into  vapor,  but  dry  soil,  or  any  other  solid  bodies,  will 
transmit  heat  downward  better  than  liquids ;  in  addition 
to  this,  a  dry  soil  has  its  interstices  filled  with  an  air  which 
diffuses  heat,  and  helps  to  elevate  the  temperature. 

A  warm  soil  in  the  spring  has  a  great  advantage  over 
a  cold  one.  The  seeds,  planted  or  sown  germinate  at  once, 
and  don't  permit  the  hardier  seeds  of  weeds  to  get  the 
start  of  the  crop.  Or,  if  the  farmer  chooses  to  stir  the 
soil  two  or  three  times  before  putting  in  the  crop,  the 
seeds  of  weeds  have  the  opportunity  to  germinate  early, 
so  that  the  young  weeds  may  be  killed  by  subsequent  work- 
ings before  the  intended  crop  is  sown.  It  is  the  expe- 
rience of  all,  that  drained  lands  are  much  easiest  kept 
clean.  But  the  temperature  of  the  soil  has  a  controlling 
influence  on  the  growth  of  corn  and  some  other  spring 
crops.  Corn  will  germinate  when  the  temperature  of  the 
soil  is  about  55°  Fahrenheit ;  a  few  degrees  lower  it  will 
rot  in  the  ground.  In  fact,  fault  is  often  found  with  seed 
corn,  when  the  only  difficulty  is  in  the  want  of  sufficient 
warmth  in  the  soil.  Barley,  oats,  and  spring  wheat  may 


130 


LAND    DRAINAGE. 


be  sown  on  drained  lands  almost  as  soon  as  the  frost  is 
out,  and  there  is  little  or  no  risk  of  the  seed  perishing. 
If  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  is  not  sufficient  to 
justify  growth  above  ground,  if  the  soil  be  only  warm 
enough,  the  plant  will  make  the  better  growth  of  roots 
below. 

The  following  illustration  of  the  manner  in  which  drain- 
age warms  the  under  soil,  we  find  in  the  Patent  Office  Re- 
port for  1856,  over  the  signature  "D.  J.  B."  (D.  J. 
Browne),  but  the  same  illustration,  engraving  and  text, 
"verbatim,  spellatim  et  punctuatim"  are  credited  to  the 
Horticulturist,  of  November,  1856,  by  Judge  French.  Not 
knowing,  therefore,  which  one  of  the  authorities  is  entitled 
to  the  credit,  we  accordingly  "divide  the  honors"  between 
them. 

"The  reason  why  drained  land  gains  heat,  and  water-logged  land 
is  always  cold,  consists  in  the  well-known  fact  that  heat  can  not  be 
transmitted  downward  through  water.  This  may  readily  be  seen  by 
the  following  experiments : 

"  Experiment  No  1.— A  square  box  was  made,  of  the  form  repre- 
sented by  the  annexed  diagram,  eighteen 
inches  deep,  eleven  inches  wide  at  top, 
and  six  inches  wide  at  bottom.  It  was 
filled  with  peat,  saturated  with  water  to 
e,  forming  to  that  depth  (twelve  and  a 
half  inches)  a  sort  of  artificial  bog.  The 
box  was  then  filled  with  water  to  f.  A 
thermometer,  c,  was  plunged,  so  that  its 
bulb  was  within  one  inch  and  a  half  of 
the  bottom.  The  temperature  of  the 
whole  mass  of  peat  and  water  was  found 
to  be  39  £°  Fahr.  A  gallon  of  boiling 
water  was  then  added;  it  raised  the 
surface  of  the  water  to  g.  In  five  min- 
utes the  thermometer,  c,  rose  to  44° 
owing  to  the  conduction  of  heat  by  the 
thermometer  and  its  guard  tube;  at  ten 
minutes  from  the  introduction  of  the  hot  water,  the  thermometer,  c, 


DRAINAGE   WARMS   THE    UNDER   SOIL.  131 

rose  to  46°,  and  it  subsequently  rose  no  higher.  Another  thermom- 
eter, b,  dipping  under  the  surface  of  the  water  at  g,  was  then  intro- 
duced, and  the  following  are  the  indications  of  the  two  thermometers 
at  the  respective  intervals,  reckoning  from  the  time  the  hot  water 
was  supplied : 

Thermometer,  6.     Thermometer,  c. 
20  minutes,          -        -        150  deg.  46  deg. 

1  hour  30       "  101     "  45     " 

2  hours  30       "  80£  "  42     " 
12    "      40       "            ...      45     "  40    " 
"The  mean  temperature  of  the  external  air  to  which  the  box  was 

exposed,  during  the  above  period,  was  42°,  the  maximum  being  47°, 
and  the  minimum  37°. 

"Experiment  No.  2, — With  the  same  arrangement  as  in  the  pre- 
ceding case,  a  gallon  of  boiling  water  was  introduced  above  the  peat 
and  water,  when  the  thermometer,  c,  was  at  36° ;  in  ten  minutes  it 
rose  to  40°.  The  cock  was  then  turned  for  the  purpose  of  drainage, 
which  was  but  slowly  effected ;  and,  at  the  end  of  twenty  minutes, 
the  thermometer,  c,  indicated  40°;  at  twenty-five  minutes,  42°,  while 
the  thermometer,  b,  was  142°.  At  thirty  minutes,  the  cock  was 
withdrawn  from  the  box,  and  more  free  egress  of  water  being  thus 
afforded,  at  thirty -five  minutes  the  flow  was  no  longer  continuous, 
and  the  thermometer,  b,  indicated  48°.  The  mass  was  drained,  and 
permeable  to  a  fresh  supply  of  water.  Accordingly,  another  gallon 
of  boiling  water  was  poured  over  it ;  and,  in 

3  minutes,  the  thermometer,  c,  rose  to    -  -    77  deg. 

5        "                        "                 fell  to  76£  " 

15        "                                                        -  70£  " 

20        "                       "                 remained  at  71     " 

1  hour  50        "                       "                       "         "  -     70£  « 

"In  these  two  experiments,  the  thermometer  at  the  bottom  of  the 
box  suddenly  rose  a  few  degrees  immediately  after  the  hot  water 
AVJIS  added ;  and  it  might  be  inferred  that  the  heat  was  carried  down- 
ward by  the  water.  But,  in  reality,  the  rise  was  owing  to  the  action 
of  the  hot  water  on  the  thermometer,  and  not  to  its  action  upon  the 
cold  water.  To  prove  this,  the  perpendicular  thermometers  were 
removed ;  the  box  was  filled  with  peat  and  water  to  within  three 
inches  of  the  top,  a  horizontal  thermometer,  c  d,  having  been  pre- 
viously secured  through  a  hole  made  in  the  side  of  the  box,  by 
means  of  a  tight-fitting  cork,  in  which  the  naked  stem  of  the  ther- 


132  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

momoter  was  grooved.  A  gallon  of  boiling  water  was  then  added. 
The  thermometer,  a  very  delicate  one,  was  not  in  the  least  affected 
by  the  boiling  water  in  the  top  of  the  box. 

"  In  this  experiment  the  wooden  box  may  be  supposed  to  be  a 
field ;  the  peat  and  cold  water  represent  the  water-logged  portion  ; 
rain  falls  on  the  surface,  and  becomes  warmed  by  contact  with  the 
soil,  and,  thus  heated,  descends;  but  it  is  stopped  by  the  cold  water, 
and  the  heat  will  go  no  further.  But,  if  the  soil  is  drained,  and  not 
water-logged,  the  warm  rain  trickles  through  the  crevices  of  the 
earth,  carrying  to  the  drain  level  the  high  temperature  it  had  gained 
on  the  surface,  parts  with  it  to  the  soil  as  it  passes  down,  and  thus 
produces  that  bottom  heat  which  is  so  essential  to  plants,  although 
so  few  suspect  its  existence." 


CHAPTEK    VIII. 


DRAINAGE    EQUALIZES    THE    TEMPERATURE    OF    THE 
SOIL  DURING  THE  SEASON  OF  GROWTH. 

WE  have  already  shown  that  the  discharges  of  water 
from  drains  are  always  several  degrees  above  freezing 
point ;  and  as  heat  naturally  tends  upward,  that  the  soil 
is  measurably  warmed  from  below  during  the  germinating 
season  of  the  seeds,  so  that  not  unfrequently  the  soil  is, 
during  the  entire  month  of  April,  much  warmer  than  the 
air  at  night,  although,  perhaps,  colder  than  the  air  during 
the  day.  The  soil  of  a  drained  field  is,  therefore,  free 
from  the  extremes  of  temperature  of  day  and  night  air, 
during  the  same  time.  Again  we  have  shown,  by  the 
tables  copied  from  observations  at  Tharand,  in  Saxony, 
that  the  drains  have  a  lower  temperature  during  July  and 
August,  than  the  air.  Thus,  while  drains  equalize  the 
temperature  of  the  soil,  and  exempt  it  from  the  extremes 
of  day  and  night  temperature ;  it  also  equalizes  it,  and 
exempts  it  from  the  extremes  of  winter  and  summer  tem- 
peratures. Prof.  Johnston  says : 

"  The  sun  beats  upon  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  gradually  warms 
it.  Yet,  even  in  summer,  this  direct  heat  descends  only  a  few  inches 
beneath  the  surface.  But  when  the  rain  falls  upon  the  warm  sur- 
face, and  finds  an  easy  descent  as  it  does  in  open  soils,  it  becomes 
iteelf  warmer,  and  carries  its  heat  down  to  the  under  soil.  Then 
the  roots  of  plants  are  warmed,  and  general  growth  is  stimulated." 

(133) 


CHAPTER     IX. 


DRAINAGE  CARRIES  DOWN   SOLUBLE    SUBSTANCES   TO 
THE  ROOTS  OF  PLANTS. 

PROF.  Johnston  says :  "  When  rain  falls  upon  heavy 
undrained  land,  or  upon  any  land  into  which  it  does 
not  readily  sink,  it  runs  over  the  surface,  dissolves  any 
soluble  matter  it  may  meet  with,  and  carries  it  to  the 
nearest  ditch  or  brook.  Rain  thus  robs  and  impoverishes 
such  land." 

It  must  be  self-evident  to  every  observing  person,  that 
the  advantage  of  rain  to  growing  crops,  is  to  furnish  them 
with  new  supplies  of  nutrition.  In  undrained  lands  the 
"  water  line  "  being  near  the  surface,  most  of  the  benefits 
to  growing  crops,  which  might  be  derived  from  rains  are 
lost,  either  by  evaporation  of  volatile  substances,  or,  be- 
ing in  a  soluble  condition,  they  are  washed  to  lower  levels 
of  surface,  or  into  streams.  The  ground  being  already 
saturated  from  below,  prevents  the  entrance  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  desired  elements ;  but  in  a  drained  soil  on  ac- 
count of  its  greater  porosity  or  mellowness  and  lower  level 
of  the  water  line,  these  substances  can  readily  penetra,te 
from  the  surface.  The  subject  of  the  "  absorbing  quali- 
ties of  arable  soil"  having  been  extensively  discussed, 
within  the  last  few  years,  by  the  best  agricultural  chem- 
ists of  England  and  the  continent,  it  may  not  be  inappro- 
priate to  present  a  summary  of  the  experiments  and  the 
conclusions  deduced  from  them. 

In  1848,  Messrs.  Huxtablc  and  Thompson  discovered, 
in  arable  lands,  the  property  of  fixing  some  of  the  ele- 
ments of  manures.  Mr.  Huxtablc,  having  filtered  some, 

(134) 


SOLUBLE   SUBSTANCES.  135 

barn-yard  liquid    through    some  earth,  obtained   it  de- 
prived of  color  and  bad  odor. 

At  the  same  time  H.  S.  Thompson  found  the  earth  to 
possess  the  faculty  of  retaining,  in  an  indissoluble  state, 
the  alkali  of  an  ammoniacal  solution,  and  even  of  solu- 
tions in  which  the  bases  were  no  longer  in  a  free  state, 
but  were  in  combination  with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  sul- 
phate and  nitrate  of  ammonia. 

Mr.  J.  T.  Way  having  been  made  acquainted  with  these 
remarkable  results,  undertook  a  long  series  of  researches 
with  the  view  of  determining  the  cause  and  conditions  of 
this  absorption ;  he  found  that  the  absorbing  property  of 
the  earth  is  not  confined  to  ammonia  only,  but  that  it  is 
extended  to  all  alkaline  and  earthy  bases,  which  are  nec- 
essary for  the  growth  of  vegetation ;  such  as  soda,  pot- 
ash, magnesia,  and  lime,  either  free  or  involved  in  combi- 
nations. 

After  numerous  experiments,  which  were  repeated  with 
the  view  of  ascertaining  whether  the  property  of  retain- 
ing the  elements  of  manures,  really  existed  in  the  arable 
soil,  Mr.  "Way  endeavored  to  express  by  numbers,  the 
value  of  this  absorption.  For  that  purpose  he  caused  a 
quantity  of  earth  to  be  digested  in  a  solution  of  the  com- 
pound he  wished  to  operate  upon,  the  difference  in  de- 
grees which  the  composition  of  the  liquid  indicated  after 
its  contact  with  the  earth,  showed  what  had  been  ab- 
sorbed. 

By  this  operation,  Mr.  Way  found  that  1000  grains  of 
either  clay  or  earth  could  absorb  from  a  solution  which 
contained  3173  per  cent,  of  ammonia  (or  3TVo3o  grains  of 
ammonia  in  1000  grains  of  solution)  quantities  of  alkali 
ranging  from  lTVo-  grains  to  3-nmr  grains,  differing  only 
with  the  difference  in  the  soils  or  clays,  the  per  cent,  being 
uniform  in  repeated  experiments  with  the  same  earth. 


136  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

There  is  nothing  absolute  in  these  figures ;  they  arc 
modified  by  the  degree  of  concentration  of  the  liquid 
and  the  quantities  of  either  earth  or  liquid  which  arc 
used. 

The  absorption  takes  place  with  great  rapidity,  and  is 
as  complete  in  half  an  hour,  as  it  is  after  remaining  in 
contact  during  fifteen  hours;  when  the  experiment  is 
made  with  a  salt  of  ammonia,  it  is  decomposed,  the  bases 
only  are  fixed,  while  the  acid  is  totally  eliminated  in  a 
state  of  calcareous  salt,  in  the  decanted  liquid. 

What  is  the  cause  of  this  phenomenon?  Is  it  caused 
by  the  presence  of  the  lime,  or  of  the  organic  matter  ? 
Is  it  owing  to  the  free  aluminium  which  may  be  in  the 
soil?  Mr.  Way  does  not  think  so,  because  no  greater  ab- 
sorption of  ammonia  is  obtained  by  adding  carbonate  of 
lime  to  clay,  free  from  this  basis  in  a  carbonated  state, 
but  containing  a  small  proportion  of  the  calcareous  ele- 
ment ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  incineration  of  the  clay 
could  not  entirely  destroy  the  decomposing  and  absorbing 
power  of  this  earth,  either  on  salts  or  bases ;  finally,  the 
treatment  by  hydrochloric  acid  causes  the  solution  of  the 
aluminum  to  diminish,  but  does  not  destroy  the  decom- 
posing and  absorbing  power  of  clay. 

The  rapidity  with  which  the  absorption  of  the  bases 
by  earth  is  effected,  led  Mr.  Way  to  suppose  that  a  chemi- 
cal combination  was  formed  ;  in  such  a  case,  the  absorp- 
tion of  an  alkali  other  than  ammonia  ought  to  take  place, 
in  the  proportion  of  the  t^YO  elements. 

When  acting  with  a  salt  of  potash,  1000  grains  of  earth 
retained  4TVoV  grains  of  potash ;  the  absorption  was 
then  more  considerable,  without  being,  as  it  ought  to 
have  been,  in  the  prevision  of  the  hypothesis  ;  and.  never- 
theless, the  liquid  contained  potash  (substituted  for  am- 
monia), in  true  proportion  indicated  by  the  equivalents, 


SOLUBLE   SUBSTANCES.  137 

that  is :  ST£VV  of  potash  to  1000  grains  of  solution. — 
In  this  case,  as  with  ammonia,  the  more  concentrated 
liquids  produce  a  greater  absorption  ;  and  when  the  salt 
was  replaced  by  a  solution  of  caustic  potash,  1000  grains 
of  earth  retained  llrV/o-  grains  of  alkali ;  this  absorption 
was  still  increased,  when  the  earth  had  previously  been 
boiled  in  an  acid. 

As  it  was  easy  to  foresee,  the  salts  of  lime  in  solu- 
tion underwent  no  modification  when  filtered  through  the 
earth  ;  but  lime  water,  according  to  the  quantities  which 
are  employed,  imparts,  in  similar  circumstances,  a  quantity 
of  alkali,  which,  in  1000  grains  of  earth,  varies  from 
2TYo-  grains,  to  14TVo-  grains. 

When  the  lime  is  in  the  form  of  a  carbonate,  dissolved 
in  water  containing  carbonic  acid,  the  absorption  is  T^V 
grains  of  carbonate  of  lime  for  1000  grains  of  earth. 

The  salts  of  soda  and  magnesia  undergo  a  transforma- 
tion in  the  soil,  similar  to  that  of  the  other  alkaline  com- 
pounds ;  but  the  action  is  less  conspicuous,  and  gives  no 
occasion  for  numerical  determinations. 

The  bases  being  retained  by  the  soil,  the  acids  which, 
like  phosphoric  acid,  form  with  lime  insoluble  compounds, 
ought  to  be  insoluble  also ;  this  idea  was  confirmed  by 
two  operations  of  Mr.  Way :  in  the  one,  water  in  which 
flax  had  been  steeped ;  and  in  the  other,  sink  water  was 
employed ;  both  were  filtered  through  earth ;  the  soil  re- 
tained precisely  all  the  substances  which  are  the  most 
useful  to  vegetation,  such  as  organic  matters  in  general, 
or  nitrogenous  substances  only,  the  phosphoric  acid,  pot- 
ash and  magnesia ;  while  the  others  were  absorbed  only 
in  part,  or  were  found  in  greater  proportion  in  the  filtered 
water. 

Mr.  Way  was  led,  by  these  experiments,  to  the  follow- 

13 


138  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

ing  conclusions :  1.  The  plants  do  not  absorb  the  ma- 
nure in  a  state  of  solution.  Next,  the  form  under  which 
mineral  matters  and  ammoniacal  salts  are  applied,  is  dif- 
ferent ;  because  the  soil  possesses  the  power  of  bringing 
them  back  to  a  special  state,  in  which  these  substances 
are  presented  to  the  plants,  an  important  circumstance 
for  the  agriculturist  who  endeavors  to  introduce  an  alkali 
as  manure  into  the  soil ;  the  salt  that  will  supply  that 
alkali  at  the  lowest  price,  will,  of  course,  obtain  the  pre- 
ference. 

It  was  also  found,  by  Mr.  Way,  that  clay  possesses  an- 
tiseptic qualities,  because  urine  filtered  through  clay  did 
not  undergo  putrid  fermentation.  From  this  fact,  we  have 
reason  to  infer  that  plants  do  assimilate  nitrogenous  sub- 
stances other  than  ammonia  and  nitric  acid. 

Finally,  Mr.  Way  thinks  that  manures,  and  by  all  means 
artificial  ones,  ought  to  be  spread  with  great  evenness,  in 
order  to  secure  everywhere  uniform  vegetation;  because 
capillarity  would  be  unable  to  disseminate  the  fertilizing 
substances,  by  means  of  diffusion,  on  account  of  their  in- 
solubility. The  same  cause  would  permit  the  application 
of  large  quantities  of  manure,  without  fear  of  any  loss 
through  drain  water,  because  a  good  soil  may  retain,  with- 
out waste,  sixty  times  as  much  of  the  fertilizing  elements 
as  are  applied  with  the  manures. 

Messrs.  W.  Henneberg  and  F.  Stokmann,  after  repeat- 
ing Way's  experiments,  confirmed  in  every  point  his  con- 
clusions ;  they  found  the  results  so  perfectly  regular,  that 
Mr.  Boedecker  was  enabled,  from  their  data,  to  establish 
algebraic  formulae,  showing  the  value  of  absorption  on 
any  given  quantity  of  earth,  of  liquid,  and  degree  of 
solution. 

Liebig  resumed  Way's  experiments,  and  confining  him- 
self to  the  study  of  arable  lands,  ascertained  that  all  soils 


SOLUBLE   SUBSTANCES.  139 

possessed  very  nearly  the  same  absorbing  power;  he 
found,  as  did  Mr.  Way,  that  soils,  either  rich  or  poor  in 
carbonate  of  lime,  did  not  manifest  that  power  with  the 
same  intensity  with  all  bases ;  thus,  in  filtering  barn-yard 
liquid,  p6tash  was  retained  with  more  readiness  than  soda. 
foV«  grammes  of  barn-yard  liquid  which  contained,  before 
being  filtered : 

Potash,    -    -    grains.       0.0867 
Soda,        -    -          "         0.0168 

Contained,  after  being  filtered : 

Potash,    -    -    grains.       0.0056 
Soda,        -    -  "         0.0118 

Whereas,  the  whole  of  the  ammonia  was  retained. 

The  alkaline  silicate  of  potash  is  acted  upon  by  the 
earth  like  other  salts  of  potash ;  the  basis  is  absorbed,  and 
in  the  same  time  a  quantity  of  the  silica  is  retained. 
While  the  absorption  of  the  basis  by  various  soils  offers 
but  small  differences,  the  absorption  of  the  silica  appears 
to  be  in  an  inverted  ratio,  as  the  organic  substances  pre- 
sent in  the  soil,  which  are  mostly  of  an  acid  reaction ;  and, 
strongly  saturating  the  earthy  bases,  such  as  lime  and 
magnesia,  they  present  an  obstacle  to  the  fixation  of  silica. 

The  solution  of  silicate  of  potash,  which  was  acted 
upon,  contained  per  quart : 

Potash,     -    -    grains.       1.166 
Silica,      -    -  "        2.780 

The  absorption  for  1,000  cubic  centimetres  of  various 
soils,  was  as  follows : 

Potash.  Silica. 

Earth  from  a  forest,        -     -    -    gr.  0.951  gr.  0.115 

"      from  a  garden,      ..."    1.055  "   1.081 

"      from  Bogenhausen,    -    -      "    1.148  "  2.007 

"      from  Hungary,           -    -     «   1.151  "  2.644 

The  soil  from  the  forest  was  full  of  organic  detritus, 


140  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

being  mixed  with  milk  of  lime  up  to  the  alkaline  reaction, 
and  then  dried,  absorbed : 

Potash,      -    -    grains,      0.987 
Silica,  "        3.169 

Liebig  thinks  that  this  absorption  is  owing  partly  to  the 
chemical  action  of  silicates  and  hydrate  of  aluminum  upon 
the  silicate  of  potassium,  and  beside  that  it  must  be'con- 
nected  with  the  physical  state  of  the  soil. 

Phosphate  of  lime,  dissolved  by  means  of  carbonic 
acid,  is  entirely  retained  by  the  soil;  the  same  happens 
with  ammoniaco-magnesian  phosphate ;  the  only  soil  of 
Tchernosem  made  an  exception  with  phosphates;  but 
Liebig  found  that  it  was  saturated  with  them. 

In  view  of  the  above  facts,  and  considering  the  small 
proportion  of  mineral  substances  which  are  dissolved  by 
drain  water,  from  the  analysis  of  Messrs.  Way  and 
Krocker,  Liebig  comes  to  the  same  conclusions  as  Mr. 
Way,  that  manures  are  presented  to  plants  under  a  spe- 
cial form,  and  that  on  account  of  the  insolubility  of  the 
new  compounds  which  are  formed,  there  must  be  in  the 
roots  a  peculiar  force,  allowing  them  to  select  and  assim- 
ilate substances  which  they  are  unable  to  obtain  from  a 
solution. 

Liebig  thinks,  however,  that  aquatic  plants,  such  as 
lemna  trisulea,  the  roots  of  which  swim  in  water  without 
direct  communication  with  the  soil,  are  submitted  to  other 
laws,  and  absorb  their  nutriment  in  a  state  of  solution. 
It  was  proved  by  analysis,  that  it  was  so,  because  the  water 
in  which  these  plants  grow,  contains  in  solution  all  the 
mineral  matter  which  is  found  in  the  ashes. 

The  alimentation  of  plants  would  not  then  be  as  simple 
as  physiologists  and  agriculturists  did  suppose  ;  nor  would 
it  be  the  same  in  process  for  all  species.  The  importance 
of  the  result  in  the  agricultural  point  of  view,  and  also 


SOLUBLE   SUBSTANCES.  141 

the  deep  interest  involved  in  the  study  of  the  absorbing 
power  of  soils,  are  a  sufficient  stimulus  for  renewing  and 
enlarging  investigations. 

Mr.  Boussingault  instrusted  F.  Brustlein,  of  the  Con- 
servatory of  Arts  of  Paris,  with  the  work  of  continuing 
the  investigation.  He  reports  that  "  it  was  performed  in 
his  laboratory,  at  the  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers." 
We  present  a  translation  of  this  report : 

"  The  rapid  and  perfect  exactness  with  which  ammonia  is  meas- 
ured with  Boussingault' s  apparatus,  the  importance  of  this  alkali  as 
an  agent  of  fertilization,  and  the  identity  of  its  reactions  with  those 
of  the  other  bases  in  the  soil,  suggested  the  exclusive  use  of  ammo- 
nia for  the  experiments. 

"  Three  specimens  of  soil  were  tested,  and  each  of  them  possessed 
a  physical  character  widely  different.  The  first,  taken  from  Bechel- 
bronn,  is  a  tenaceous  compact  clay,  rich  in  carbonate  of  lime,  retain- 
ing water,  and  when  dried,  very  hard.  The  second,  from  Mittel- 
hausborgen,  is  the  lehm  (loam)  of  the  fertile  neighborhood  of  Stras- 
bourg, very  rich  in  carbonate  of  lime,  with  little  plasticity  but  very 
homogeneous.  The  third  is  the  soil  of  Liebfrauenberg's  orchard, 
sandy,  quartzose,  very  rich  in  organic  detritus,  remains  of  ancient 
and  very  powerful  manuring." 

****** 

From  the  above  experiments  we  may  derive  the  follow- 
ing conclusions  :  The  property  of  absorbing  ammonia  by 
arable  lands  is  exclusively  dependent  on  the  physical  con- 
stitution of  the  mineral  substances,  and  even  on  the  or- 
ganic matters  with  which  they  are  formed.  This  was  made 
evident  by  the  action  of  humus,  peat  and  animal-black 
upon  an  ammoniacal  solution ;  the  former  two  decompose 
at  the  same  time  a  noticeable  proportion  of  alkali.  The 
existence  of  a  carbonate  in  the  soil  is  necessary,  so  that 
the  earth  may  decompose  an  ammoniacal  salt  in  retaining 
the  basis  of  it;  animal -black  is  possessed  of  that  faculty 
when  carbonate  of  lime  has  been  incorporated.  The  de- 
composition being  stopped  strictly  at  the  quantity  of  salt, 


142  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

the  ammonia  of  which  has  been  fixed,  the  force  which 
impels  the  absorption  is  powerful  enough  to  provoke  this 
double  decomposition. 

We  know  with  what  readiness  ammoniacal  salts  are  de- 
composed in  presence  of  carbonate  of  lime.  Mr.  Bous- 
singault  demonstrated  that  moist  carbonate  of  lime,  in 
presence  of  a  fixed  salt  of  ammonia,  sets  free,  in  time, 
and  dries  up  all  the  ammonia  in  a  state  of  vola- 
tile carbonate  ;  the  same  happens,  when  a  very  weak 
solution  of  hydrochloric  acid  boils  in  presence  of  carbo- 
nate of  calcium. 

The  absorption  of  ammonia  by  the  soil,  in  an  atmos- 
phere which  is  loaded  with  it,  is  considerable,  as  stated 
by  Mr.  Way.  When  the  air,  very  limited  in  ammonia,  is 
passed  through  a  long  column  of  earth,  the  latter  absorbs 
almost  the  whole  quantity  of  the  ammonia,  and  loses  it 
again,  in  great  part,  by  the  action  of  currents  of  moist 
air.  These  experiments  do  not  permit  us  to  draw  con- 
clusions as  to  the  absorption  of  ammonia  by  the  earth 
from  the  atmosphere  ;  because,  in  the  experiment,  when 
that  alkali  was  most  minutely  diffused  through  the  air,  it 
was  found  that  the  air  which  traversed  the  apparatus  con- 
tained 225  times  as  much  ammonia  as  the  air  which  cir- 
culates at  the  surface  of  the  globe. 

With  the  earth  loaded  with  ammonia,  and  exposed  to 
the  air  when  moistened,  there  was  a  production  of  azotic 
acid ;  but  this  production  was  not  large  enough,  if  we 
compare  it  with  that  which  took  place  in  the  experiments 
on  nitrification  of  arable  land,  made  at  Liebfrauenberg,  in 
1857,  by  Mr.  Boussingault,  so  that  we  can  not  affirm  that 
it  was  owing  to  the  transformation  of  the  volatile  alkali. 

The  ammonia  absorbed  by  the  earth  is  of  great  sta- 
bility as  long  as  the  earth  is  dry ;  but  as  soon  as  water 
intervenes,  it  causes,  by  evaporation,  the  dissipation  of  the 


SOLUBLE   SUBSTANCES.  143 

ammonia.  This  phenomenon  is  well  known  to  agricultur- 
ists who  park  their  sheep;  because  urine,  impregnating 
the  earth's  surface,  putrefies  within  24  hours,  with  a  tem- 
perature of  15°  centigrade ;  it  then  emits  ammoniacal 
vapors,  which  are  wastefully  rising,  unless  promptly 
checked  by  timely  plowing.  This  volatilization  of  ammo- 
nia in  arable  land  proper,  is  a  fact  which  was  constantly 
observed  by  Mr.  Boussingault,  in  his  researches  on  the 
atmosphere  confined  in  the  soil. 

The  earth,  according  to  its  richness  in  ammonia  and  its 
force  of  retention,  imparts  to  water  greater  or  lesser 
quantities  of  alkali,  independent,  in  some  measure,  of  the 
proportion  of  the  liquid.  Water,  containing  very  minute 
quantity  of  ammonia,  seems  to  be  endowed  with  the  prop- 
erty of  circulating  through  the  soil ;  because,  in  the  above 
experiments,  water  was  never  entirely  deprived-of  its  alkali 
by  the  earth,  even  when  contained  in  extremely  limited 
proportions.  Taking  into  account  the  feeble  dose  of  am- 
monia which  exists  in  the  soil,  its  solubility,  how  small 
soever,  and  then  its  diffusion — knowing  that  the  reactions 
of  the  other  alkalies,  except  the  volatility,  are  identical 
with  those  of  ammonia — it  seems  very  probable  that  plants 
select  the  largest  part  of  their  nutriment  from  Very  weak 
solutions,  in  which  is  found  the  azotic  element,  so  neces- 
sary to  them,  in  a  state  of  ammonia  or  nitric  acid.  It 
can  not  be  doubted  that  such  is  the  fact ;  aquatic  vegeta- 
bles stand  as  a  proof  of  it ;  and  Boussingault,  by  beauti- 
ful experiments,  did  establish  that  a  plant  acquires  a  com- 
plete growth  in  a  soil  formed  with  a  sand  of  pure  quartz 
previously  calcined,  provided  it  be  supplied  with  nitrate 
of  potash,  phosphates  and  alkaline  ashes.  In  this  condi- 
tion the  vegetable  is  then  compelled  to  derive  its  nutri- 
ment from  a  solution. 


CHAPTER     X. 


DRAINAGE    PREVENTS    "HEAVING    OUT,"    "FREEZING 
OUT,"  OR  "WINTER-KILLING." 

WE  have  frequently  heard  farmers  complain  of  portions 
of  fields,  and  sometimes  of  entire  fields,  that  winter  crops 
would  "winter-kill"  or  " freeze  out"  on  them.  In  point 
of  fact,  wre  have  known  of  several  farms  which,  in  other 
respects,  were  good  farms,  sold  at  a  reduced  price,  because 
certain  portions  were  "  spouty."  This  "spoutiness"  is 
easily  remedied  by  underdraining.  The  cause  and  process 
of  freezing  out  are  explained  as  follows  :  In  places  where 
it  occurs  there  is  a  stratum  of  clay,  or  hard  pan,  at  the 
depth  of  a  few  inches,  or  a  foot  from  the  surface.  This 
stratum  is  nearly  impervious  to  water.  The  soil  has  been 
pulverized  by  plowing,  and  absorbs  like  a  sponge  the  au- 
tumn rains,  and  the  melting  snows  in  the  springtime;  it 
not  only  absorbs  but  retains  these  waters,  because  there 
is  no  way  for  them  to  escape  except  by  evaporation,  and 
this  takes  place  to  a  very  limited  extent  only  in  cold 
weather.  The  ground  is  frozen  during  the  night  and  the 
water  converted  into  ice ;  this  process  of  freezing  not 
only  severs  the  smaller  roots  and  sometimes  the  larger 
ones,  but  throws  up  the  soil  in  scales  or  spicules,  thus 
drawing  the  clover  or  wheat  roots  from  their  beds.  When 
a  thaw  comes,  the  saturated  soil  settles  down  and  exposes 
the  roots,  and  a  few  repetitions  of  this  process,  which  oc- 
curs every  winter,  leave  the  plants  dead  upon  the  field  in 
the  spring. 

Underdraining  affords  a  certain  outlet  or  escape  for  the 
waters.  Winter  grain  crops  seldom  suffer  from  freezing 

(H4) 


HEAVING   OUT,   FREEZING   OUT,  ETC.  145 

when  the  soil  is  dry.  We  know  of  several  instances  where 
"freezing  out"  was  effectually  remedied  by  underdrain- 
ing ;  but,  as  we  prefer  the  evidence  of  others  to  our  own 
observation,  we  again  quote  from  the  Country  Gentleman: 

"A  case  coming  under  our  observation  the  past  winter  will  well 
illustrate  the  subject  A  field  of  five  acres,  seeded  to  clover  two 
years  ago  upon  rye,  owing  in  part  to  the  presence  of  snow  upon  the 
ground  the  greater  part  of  the  first  winter  and  spring,  escaped  with 
slight  injury  from  this  cause,  and  gave  a  very  good  growth  of  clover. 
But  the  past  winter,  the  weather  being  of  a  different  character,  the 
grass  on  about  three  acres  of  the  field  was  entirely  destroyed,  every 
root  of  clover,  being  pulled  up  or  thrown  out,  laid  loose  upon  the 
surface  of  the  ground  the  present  spring.  This  was  an  example  of 
heaving  out'  of  unmistakable  character. 

"  The  evil  lies  in  a  saturated  soil.  It  matters  little  whether  the 
surface  be  clay  or  sandy — it  did  not  in  the  case  above  mentioned — 
if  the  subsoil  is  of  an  impervious  character.  We  were  much  sur- 
prised to  find  in  a  slight  depression,  some  three  or  four  rods  across, 
where  the  surface  soil  was  a  light  sand,  that  the  clover  was  as  badly 
winter-killed  as  on  the  clayey  part  of  the  field ;  and  the  clayey  part, 
it  is  well  to  mention,  had  good  surface  drainage  from  the  descent  or 
slope  of  the  ground — at  least  an  inch  in  a  foot  This  sandy  corner 
was  underlaid  by  an  impervious  hard  pan,  holding  water  equally  as 
well  as  the  clay ;  and  we  believe  this  will  generally  be  found  to  be 
the  case  in  all  loams  which  suffer  from  heaving  or  freezing  out. 

"We  have  shown,  in  a  previous  article,  that  'draining  deepens  the 
soil,'  and  hence  it  is  the  remedy  for  freezing  out  in  all  cases.  Water 
no  longer  saturates  the  surface  soil  in  such  quantity  as  to  form 
honeycomb  ice  every  time  it  freezes;  the  plants  are  no  longer  con- 
fined to  short  roots,  but  have  a  better  hold  upon  the  soil,  and  it  has 
been  found  that  no  loss  whatever  results  from  this  cause,  however 
unfavorable  the  season,  on  a  thoroughly  drained  soil. 

"A  little  testimony  on  this  point  may  not  be  out  of  place  here. 
Maxwell  Brothers,  of  Geneva,  tell  us,  in  the  Transactions  of  the 
N.  Y.  State  Agricultural  Society,  for  1855,  about  draining  a  clay 
field,  which  previously  could  not  be  worked  for  spring  crops  in  sea- 
son for  sowing,  and  heaved  so  badly  as  to  ruin  winter  crops,  which 
draining  has  rendered  as  mellow  and  productive  as  can  be  desired, 
so  that  they  can  cultivate  immediately  after  heavy  rains,  and  grow 
wheat  and  clover  without  loss  from  frost  John  Johnston,  of  Seneca 

14 


146  LAND  DRAINAGE. 

county,  has  given  pointed  evidence  on  the  subject.  By  draining  ho 
has  BO  improved  his  clayey  farm  that  no  loss  is  suffered  from  this 
cause,  though  formerly  it  was  a  source  of  great  injury  to  the  crops 
in  the  low  lands,  entirely  ruining  wheat,  and  destroying  it  in  many 
places  upon  the  higher  parts  of  the  farm.  Many  like  cases  of  the 
beneficial  results  of  draining  in  this  respect  could  be  given,  were  it 
needful." 


CHAPTER    XL 


DRAINAGE  PREVENTS  INJURY  FROM  DROUGHT. 

THE  year  1854,  was  a  year  of  severe  drought  in  the 
state  of  Ohio.  But  notwithstanding  the  drought  there 
were  some  excellent  crops  grown  in  the  state.  Mr.  Crosby, 
of  Ahstabula  county,  states  (under  oath)  that  in  that  year 
he  grew  three  acres  in  wheat,  which  produced  thirty 
bushels  per  acre.  Messrs.  F.  and  W.  Donaldson,  of  Cler- 
ment  county,  grew  thirty-two  bushels  per  acre.  Mr.  J. 
A.  Webster,  of  Meigs  county,  produced  thirty-six  and  one 
third  bushels  per  acre,  on  4J  acres,  and  Mr.  A.  Edgel,  of 
Washington  county,  produced  thirty-eight  and  one  third 
bushels  per  acre,  on  three  acres,  while  G.  Dana  and  son, 
of  the  same  county,  produced  thirty-six  bushels  per  acre, 
on  nine  acres.  These  gentlemen  have  all  made  their  state- 
ments under  oath.  In  their  account  of  culture  they  unan- 
imously state  that  they  plowed  deep. 

In  the  same  year,  Mr.  Standiford,  of  Allen  county,  states 
that  he  produced  ninety-four  bushels  of  corn  per  acre. 
Mr.  Chaffee,  of  Ashtabula  county,  ninety-two  bushels. 
Mr.  Hewitt,  of  Hancock,  ninety-five  and  one  half  bushels 
per  acre,  and  Mr.  C.  Shepard,  of  Washington,  one  hun- 
dred and  eight  bushels  per  acre.  The  statements  of  these 
gentlemen  are  subscribed  under  oath,  and  they  all  agree 
that  they  that  season  plowed  deep. 

"We  recollect,"  says  the  Genesee  Farmer,  "walking  through  a 
magnificent  field  of  corn  on  the  thoroughly  underdrained  farm  of 
our  friend  John  Johnston.  One  of  the  underdrains  was  choked  up, 
and  there  the  crop  was  a  failure.  Corn  delights  in  a  loose,  dry, 
warm  soil.  If  it  is  surcharged  with  water,  all  the  sunshine  of  our 
hottest  summers  can  not  make  it  warm,  and  all  the  manure  that 

.'147) 


148  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

can  be  put  on  it  will  not  make  the  corn  yield  a  maximum  crop.  In 
passing  along  the  various  railroads,  we  have  often  been  saddened  to 
see  thousands  of  acres  of  land  planted  to  corn,  which,  by  a  little  un- 
derdraining,  would  have  produced  magnificent  crops  of  this  grandest 
of  cereals,  but  which  presented  a  miserable  spectacle  of  yellow,  sickly, 
stunted,  half-starved  plants,  struggling  for  very  life.  We  have  ever 
been  willing  to  apologize  for  the  shortcomings  of  American  farmers. 
We  know  the  difficulties  under  which  many  of  them  labor.  We  do 
believe  them  to  be,  as  a  whole,  'intelligent  and  enterprising.'  But 
these  sickly  cornfields  are  well  calculated  to  create  a  very  different 
impression.  We  have  frequently  to  repeat  the  German  proverb — 
'  to  know  is  not  to  be  able.'  These  farmers  know  how  to  raise  good 
corn,  but  they  are  not  always  able  to  put  in  practice  improved 
methods  of  cultivation.  There  is  scarcely  a  plant  which  does  not 
thrive  much  better  in  a  loose,  deep  soil,  than  in  a,  shallow,  compact 
one ;  but  in  no  case  is  this  fact  susceptible  of  more  ready  verifica- 
tion than  in  the  corn  plant." 

One  instance  only  may  be  cited  to  illustrate  the  effects  of  deep 
culture.  There  is  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Columbus  a  tract 
of  "  Scioto  bottom  land"  which  has  for  upward  of  forty  years  been 
cultivated  in  corn  annually.  In  1851,  Mr.  John  L.  Gill  of  Colum- 
bus, anxious  to  test  the  effect  of  deep  culture  on  corn,  plowed  eleven 
acres  and  about  three  fourths,  to  a  depth  of  about  eight  inches,  with 
a  double  plow,  and  then  followed  with  a  subsoil  plow,  loosening  but 
not  turning  up  the  soil,  to  a  depth  of  eight  inches  more.  This  tract, 
as  well  as  the  neighboring  one,  had  never  been  plowed  to  a  depth 
exceeding  six  or  seven  inches.  In  1851,  the  neighboring  pieces 
were  plowed  the  usual  depth,  and  the  planting  completed  on  the  7th 
of  May  ;  Mr.  Gill  completed  the  planting  on  the  10th. 

In  the  course  of  three  weeks  the  corn  in  the  neighboring  tracts 
appeared  as  forward  and  thrifty  as  usual,  while  that  of  Mr.  Gill 
appeared  pale  and  rather  dwarfed ;  this,  to  say  the  least,  was  rather 
discouraging.  But  in  the  month  of  July,  that  in  the  neighboring 
fields  appeared  to  have  come  to  a  'stand  still;'  the  leaves  curled  and 
drooped,  and  gave  unmistakable  manifestations  of  sufferings  from 
drought,  while  Mr.  Gill's  was  growing  vigorously,  and  indicated  no 
lack  of  moisture.  The  result  was  that  Mr.  Gill  obtained  120  bushels 
per  acre,  while  the  adjoining  fields  yielded  less  than  forty  bushels 
per  acre.  This  fact  is  well  authenticated,  and  the  field  was  wit- 
nessed in  July  and  August  by  thousands  of  persons. 

While  the  stalks  in  Mr.  Gill's  tract  presented  a  pale  and  sickly 


INJURY   FROM   DROUGHT.  149 

appearance,  the  roots  were  pushing  downward  in  search  of  moisture 
and  nourishment ;  finding  abundance  of  this,  a  sufficient  supply  was 
stored  for  the  growth  of  the  plant  to  resist  all  effects  of  drought. 
That  in  the  neighboring  fields  exhausted  the  supply  at  first,  and 
when  the  drought  set  in  it  had  no  store  of  supply  to  fall  back  upon. 

If  then  deep  plowing  will  secure  a  good  crop  in  a  pe- 
riod of  drought,  how  much  more  may  not  be  secured  by 
underdraining  ? 

The  reason  why  drainage  prevents  injury  from  drought 
is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  draining  "  deepens  the 
soil,"  and  "  lengthens  the  season."  It  is  a  well-known 
fact  that  a  deep  and  mellow  soil  retains  moisture  much 
better  than  a  shallow  and  compact  one. 

"  '  Water  is  held  in  the  soil  between  the  minute  particles  of  earth. 
If  these  particles  be  pressed  together  compactly,  there  is  no  space 
left  between  them  for  water.'  Compact  subsoils  are  but  little  per- 
meable to  water,  compared  with  the  same  when  broken  up,  pulver- 
ized and  mellowed.  The  one  is  porous  and  drinks  in  moisture  like 
a  sponge ;  the  other  absorbs  it  but  in  small  quantities,  and  readily 
parts  with  the  same  on  the  application  of  heat  The  one  takes  it 
from  the  air,  which  passes  freely  through  it;  the  other,  impervious 
to  the  air,  or  any  slightly  powerful  influences,  remains  unchanged. 
Undrained  soils,  as  we  have  shown,  become  compact  after  heavy 
rains,  by  the  evaporation  of  the  water  with  -which  they  are  satur- 
ated ;  drained  soils,  on  the  contrary,  become  more  porous  from  the 
filtration  of  the  same  amount  of  moisture  into  the  drains  below. 

"  Draining  prevents  injury  from  drought,  by  giving  a  better  growth 
to  plants  in  the  early  summer.  Seed  sown  on  any  soil  containing 
stagnant  water,  sends  no  roots  below  that  water  line,  but  may  for  u 
while  grow  well  from  roots  near  the  surface.  But  let  drought  come, 
the  water  line  sinks  rapidly,  the  roots  having  no  depth  to  seek  mois- 
ture below,  are  parched  and  burned,  and  without  rain,  the  crop  is 
irreparably  injured.  On  a  drained  and  deepened  soil  the  roots  go 
down  without  obstruction,  and  are  thus  prepared  to  withstand  the 
effects  of  the  long-continued  dry  weather  so  often  experienced. 
That  they  will  do  so,  a  thousand  facts  in  the  experience  of  the  farmer 
will  prove  to  him  that  observes  them." 

A  correspondent  from  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania,  writ- 


150  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

ing  over  the  signature  of  B.  B.,  to  the  Country  Gentle- 
man, in  July,  1854,  says  : 

"  There  are  many  portions  of  high  ground  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania,  and  along  the  Monongahela  river,  remark- 
able for  its  productive  qualities.  For  many  years  past,  in  has  been 
observed  that  those  high  hills,  with  ordinary  cultivation,  produce 
better  crops  of  every  kind,  and  grow  superior  fruit,  to  the  bottom 
land  in  the  same  region.  Many  of  the  farmers  would  smile  if  told 
that  the  rich  qualities  of  their  land  might  be  attributed  to  under- 
draining.  The  idea  of  draining  hills  from  one  hundred  to  three 
hundred  feet  elevation,  they  would  consider  ridiculous,  from  the 
fact  that  no  swampy  or  moist  land  can  there  exist,  and  instead  of  at- 
tempting to  drain  it,  some  invention  should  be  had  to  retain  the 
moisture.  This  very  invention  they  have  in  the  most  superior  kind 
of  underdraining." 

"  These  hills  comprise  a  portion  of  the  coal  region  of  Pennsylva- 
nia, and  cover  most  generally  two  strata  of  bituminous  coal.  The 
first,  about  from  thirty  to  sixty  to  sixty  feet  from  the  upper  surface, 
from  four  to  five  feet  in  thickness;  and  the  second,  at  the  distance 
of  about  sixty  feet  beneath  the  first,  of  from  five  to  seven  feet  in 
thickness.  The  first  strata,  upon  account  of  its  depth,  as  well  as  its 
quality,  is  but  little  worked  at  the  present  time,  where  the  second  is 
accessible ;  and  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  Pittsburg,  where 
the  first  '  crops  out/  the  second  alone  is  worked.  From  the  quality 
of  this  coal,  and  the  great  demand  for  it  in  all  parts  of  the  country, 
an  immense  number  of  tuns  are  annually  extracted — completely  un- 
dermining many  acres  of  surface,  forming  mammoth  underdrains ; 
and,  as  a  number  of  acres  are  taken  out,  the  whole  hill  is  let  down — 
not  together  in  one  mass,  but  broken  and  mangled  by  the  pillars  and 
supports  left  by  the  miners.  So  that,  when  the  coal  from  any  one 
hill  is  extracted  and  the  pits  abandoned,  the  soil  upon  its  surface 
will  have  all  the  advantages  of  the  best  underdraining;  and  not 
draining  of  two  or  three  feet  in  depth,  but  of  from  ten  to  an  hundred 
feet ;  and,  the  ground  being  loosened  to  such  a  depth,  it  is  almost 
impossible  that  it  should  suffer  from  drought.  I  have  no  doubt  but 
this  is  one  of  the  causes  of  the  great  crops  on  some  of  our  hills. 

"  The  drought  at  this  time  (July  17)  is  truly  excessive,  not  a  par- 
ticle of  moisture  apparent  in  the  ground  to  the  depth  of  eighteen 
inches ;  and  the  summer  thus  far  has  been  so  dry  as  to  almost  check 
the  entire  growth  of  all  kinds  of  spring  crops.  The  farm  I  cultivate 


INJURY   FROM   DROUGHT.  151 

consists  of  about  forty  acres,  all  of  which,  excepting  about  ten  acres, 
is  undermined  and  underdrained  by  the  taking  out  of  the  coal  to  the 
depth  of  from  ten  to  one  hundred  feet.  My  crop  of  hay  above  the 
undermining  has  averaged  over  two  tuns  to  the  acre,  while  a  '  rich 
bottom'  of  one  of  my  neighbors  did  not  produce  one  half  the  quan- 
tity. 

"Again,  I  have  planted  upon  the  underdrained  portion  about  three 
acres  of  corn,  and  on  the  same  place,  below  the  draining,  in  a  rich 
garden,  deeply  spaded,  there  is  planted  a  bed  of  the  same  kind  of 
corn.  The  latter  has  received  careful  garden  culture,  and  the 
former,  planted  on  clover  sod,  the  common  field  culture.  The  first 
looks  as  if  it  wanted  rain  badly,  but  still  has  a  good  color  and  healthy 
appearance ;  but  the  leaves  of  the  latter  look  more  like  torches  or 
fancy  cigars,  so  closely  have  they  wrapped  themselves  up,  than  any 
growing  vegetable.  The  product  of  hay,  as  well  as  the  present  ap- 
pearance of  the  corn,  can  be,  partly  at  least,  attributed  to  the  under- 
draining. 

"  These  advantages  are  still  more  apparent  upon  the  growing  of 
fruit  Formerly  the  bottom  land  was  always  sought  after  for  gar- 
dens and  orchards.  A  few  years  since  an  enterprising  man  fixed 
upon  the  top  of  one  of  our  highest  hills  (Mount  Washington.)  He 
now  brings  the  first,  largest  and  best  fruits  to  market,  and  gets  the 
highest  price.  His  land  is  undermined,  and  I  understand  he  attrib- 
utes his  success  greatly  to  this  fact" 

Another  correspondent  says : 

*  *  "  Last  spring  I  was  induced  to  undertake  a  trial  of  under- 
draining  in  my  garden.  The  soil  was  originally  pretty  hard  clay, 
though  it  has  been  made  lighter  and  more  friable  of  late  years  by 
additions  of  muck,  chip-dirt,  manure,  etc.  The  time  for  making 
garden  being  close  at  hand,  and  the  materials  not  being  conveniently 
to  be  had,  1  was  able  to  drain  only  about  half  of  my  garden,  and  I 
was  thus,  though  unintentionally,  provided  with  the  means  of  com- 
paring contiguous  portions  of  similar  land,  one  portion  being  drained 
and  the  other  not  The  portion  that  was  drained  was  obviously  su- 
perior to  the  other  in  several  respects.  1.  Tt  was  sooner  dry  or  in 
a  condition  to  be  worked  than  the  undrained.  In  this  respect 
the  draining  has,  both  last  spring  and  this  one,  made  my  clay-soil 
garden  almost  as  early  as  those  on  sandy  soils.  This  I  consider  a 
great  advantage,  as  it  enables  me  to  get  in  seeds  a  week  or  two 
earlier.  2.  During  the  long  term  of  dry  weather  last  summer,  the 


152  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

things  growing  upon  the  drained  portion  did  not  suffer  so  much,  in 
the  way  of  being  wilted,  pale  and  stunted  in  growth,  as  the  plants 
did  on  the  undrained  section.  1  had  thus  occular  demonstration 
that  drained  land  will  suffer  less  from  drought  than  undrained.  3. 
In  the  case  of  a  few  crops  which  1  raised  on  both  portions,  for  the 
sake  of  comparing  them,  I  made  myself  quite  sure  that  on  the 
drained  portion  the  peas,  etc.',  ripened  a  few  days  earlier,  and  were 
a  little  plumper  or  better  than  the  same  crops  from  the  same  kind 
of  seed,  and  with  the  same  kind  of  treatment,  on  the  undrained." 

"in  the  long  drought  of  1854,  in  New  England,  a  pertinent  case 
is  mentioned,  where  two  neighbors  farmed  adjoining  fields  precisely 
alike,,  with  the  exception  of  depth  of  plowing.  One  plowed  four 
inches  deep,  and  grew  oats  weighing  but  seventeen  pounds  per 
bushel ;  while  the  other,  plowing  nine  inches  deep,  raised  oats 
weighing  thirty  pounds  per  bushel.  The  proper  depth  of  plowing 
depends,  we  think,  considerably  upon  the  character  of  the  subsoil, 
and  the  condition  of  the  land  as  to  drainage.  A  porous  subsoil 
would  admit  of  the  rising  of  moisture  from  below,  while  a  hard  pan 
or  clayey  soil  would  need  to  be  plowed  to  a  greater  depth,  so  as  to 
prepare  it  for  taking  all  possible  aid  from  slight  rains,  the  dews,  and 
the  moisture  of  the  air.  A  well-drained  soil  would  present  the  same 
general  characteristics  of  one  with  a  porous  subsoil." 

"  At  a  Legislative  Agricultural  Meeting,  held  in  Albany,  New 
York,  January  25,  1855,  'the  great  drought  of  1854'  being  the 
subject,  the  secretary  stated  that  '  the  experience  of  the  past  season 
has  abundantly  proved  that  thorough  drainage  upon  soils  requiring 
it,  has  proved  a  very  great  relief  to  the  farmer ;'  that  '  the  crops  upon 
such  lands  have  been  far  been  better,  generally,  than  those  upon 
undrained  lands  in  the  same  locality;'  and  that,  '  in  many  instances, 
the  increased  crop  has  been  sufficient  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the 
improvement  in  a  single  year."  ' 

"  A  committee  of  the  New  York  Farmers'  Club,  which  visited  the 
farm  of  Prof.  Mapes,  in  New  Jersey,  in  the  time  of  the  severe  drought, 
in  1855,  reported  that  the  professor's  fences  were  the  boundaries 
of  the  drought,  all  the  lands  outside  being  affected  by  it,  while  his 
remained  free  from  injury.  This  was  attributed,  both  by  the  com- 
mittee and  by  Prof.  Mapes  himself,  to  thorough  drainage  and  deep 
tillage  with  the  subsoil  plow. 


CHAPTER    XII. 


DKAINAGE  IMPROVES  THE   QUANTITY  AND   QUALITY 
OF  THE  CROPS. 

THAT  drainage  increases  the  quantity  of  the  crops,  is 
confirmed  by  every  one  who  has  practiced  it  to  any  ex- 
tent. The  writer  of  "  Talpa,  or  the  Chronicles  of  a  Clay 
Farm"  states  that  underdrainage  increased  the  products 
of  a  heavy  clay  farm  27  per  cent.  Almost  all  English 
writers  on  drainage  agree  that  thorough  drainage  increases 
the  products  to  such  an  extent  that  the  net  increase  alone, 
in  two  or  three  years,  is  sufficient  to  pay  all  the  expense 
incurred  in  underdraining.  The  instances  on  record  de- 
monstrating the  increase  in  crops  by  underdraining,  are 
sufficiently  numerous  to  make  an  ordinary-sized  volume. 
From  the  mass  of  them  we  select  the  following,  from  Eng- 
land, Germany,  and  several  states  in  the  union,  in  order 
to  show  that  climate  and  culture  have  not  played  so  im- 
portant a  part  in  connection  with  drainage  as  some  have 
intimated.  Much,  very  much,  is  due  to  culture,  but  more, 
in  many  instances,  is  due  to  underdrainage ;  because  the 
best  of  culture  on  a  stiff  clay  soil  will  not  produce  as 
great  a  result  as  will  underdraining. 

In  the  first  volume  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Journal, 
p.  31.  Sir  James  Graham,  bart.,  states  that  "  a  field  which 
he  took  into  his  own  management  was  let  at  4s.  6d.  per 
acre ;  it  was  pasture  of  the  coarsest  description,  overrun 
with  rushes  and  other  aquatic  plants.  After  draining  and 
subsoil  plowing,  at  an  outlay  of  £6  18s.  4d.  per  acre,  it 
was  let  to  the  incoming  tenant,  on  a  fourteen-years  lease, 

(153) 


154         •  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

at  20s.  per  acre — yielding  an  annual  interest  of  rather 
more  than  11  per  cent,  on  the  outlay."  In  vol.  2,  p.  276, 
Mr.  J.  Burke  states  that "  Mr.  Denison,  of  Kiln  wick  Percy, 
purchased  about  400  acres  of  rabbit  warren,  of  an  appa- 
rently sterile  sand,  with  a  heavy  ferruginous  subsoil ; 
the  hills  covered  with  heather,  and  the  hollows  with  a  bed 
of  marshy  aquatic  plants ;  and  of  which  the  cultivation 
had  been  abandoned,  as  it  was  found,  although  pared  and 
burnt,  not  to  produce  more  than  three  quarters  per  acre 
of  oats,  and  was  let  at  2s.  6d.  per  acre.  After  having 
been  subsoiled,  plowed,  and  drained  with  tiles  and  soles, 
at  a  cost  of  £5  4s.  8d.  per  acre,  exclusive  of  the  carriage, 
and  manured  in  the  common  way,  it  produced  ten  and  a 
half  quarters  of  Tartarian  oats  per  acre,  and  now  bears 
wheat  and  oats,  on  a  property  which  was  formerly  con- 
sidered useless." 

It  is  also  stated  in  the  same  page,  "  that  some  land  be- 
longing to  Rev.  Mr.  Croft,  of  Hatton  Bushell,  which  was 
not  worth  5s.  per  acre,  is  now  let  at  21s.,  evidently  from 
the  effect  of  drainage,  and  by  the  breaking  up  of  the  moor 
pan." 

In  the  succeeding  pages  he  continues :  "I  have,  more- 
over, the  authority  of  the  Marquis  of  Tweeddale  for  stat- 
ing that  the  increased  product  of  his  home  farm  at  Yes- 
ter,  in  Scotland,  has  been  nearly  two  thirds  on  most  of 
the  crops,  and  in  some  cases  much  more,  upon  all  the  land 
which  has  been  subsoiled  and  drained.  One  field,  indeed, 
which  his  lordship  declares  to  have  formerly  carried  only 
17  bushels  of  oats  per  acre,  has  given  67  bushels  of  bar- 
ley, after  having  been  trench-plowed  and  drained."  He 
goes  on  to  state :  "  These  improvements,  by  means  of 
drainage,  although  clearly  evincing  its  importance,  both 
to  the  landlord  in  the  increased  value  of  his  property,  and 
to  the  farmer  in  the  production  of  his  crops,  are  yet  less 


QUANTITY   AND   QUALITY   OF   CROPS.  155 

decisive  than  what  I  shall  here  briefly  attempt  to  describe. 
The  extra- parochial  place  of  Teddesley  Hay,  in  Stafford- 
shire, is  the  residence  of  Lord  Hatherton,  and  contains 
2,586  acres.  It  was  originally  part  of  the  forest  of  Can- 
nock,  and,  with  the  exception  of  two  anciently  inclosed 
parks,  it  continued  uninclosed  until  1820,  when  the  whole 
became,  either  by  allotment  or  purchase,  the  property  of 
his  lordship.  The  extent  of  the  farm  lands  is  1,832  acres, 
comprising  a  range  of  high  and  dry  hills  to  the  east,  ad- 
joining Cauk  Chase,  which  hills  were  formerly  a  rabbit 
warren,  covered  with  heath  or  fern.  Having  heard  this 
tract  of  land  below  the  hills  mentioned  as  exhibiting  in  a 
striking  manner  the  results  of  judicious  draining,  and 
employment  of  therwater  so  obtained,  I  visited  the  place, 
in  the  latter  end  of  May,  1841.  I  was  conducted  over  it 
by  Mr.  Bright,  the  respected  land  steward,  who  gave  me 
the  following  statement;,  and  in  riding  through  the  farm, 
which  then  presented  the  appearance  of  the  most  luxuri- 
ant vegetation,  described  to  me  the  condition  of  the  land 
in  1820.  The  larger  park,  which  had  been  long  divided 
into  fields,  was  ill  cultivated,  and  the  lesser  park  might  be 
fairly  viewed  as  one  bed  of  rushes,  and  in  the  lower  parts 
alder ;  the  whole  consisted  generally  of  a  light  soil,  rather 
inclined  to  peat,  the  subsoil  being  chiefly  a  stiff  clay. 

Some  very  deep  drains  were  made  in  the  larger  park,  which 
was  effectually  drained,  and  from  which  large  volumes  of 
water  now  issue ;  as  soon  as  the  inclosure  was  completed, 
other  deep  drains  were  made,  and  for  the  most  part  with 
excellent  effect ;  things  were  in  this  state  when  Mr.  Bright 
became  agent  to  Lord  Hatherton;  he  immediately  con- 
ceived the  notion  of  putting  a  portion  of  the  waste  allot- 
ments, and  the  whole  of  the  lesser  park,  containing  a  sur- 
face of  nearly  600  acres,  through  a  regular  course  of 
thorough  drainage,  and  afterward  collecting  the  whole  of 


156  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

the  drain  water  into  two  main  channels,  with  the  double 
intention  of  conducting  one  of  them  through  the  farm- 
yard, for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  by  it  a  water  power 
for  various  objects  connected  with  the  estate,  and  then 
employing  it,  in  conjunction  with  the  other  stream,  in 
making  an  extensive  tract  of  upland  water  meadow.  It 
must,  however,  be  acknowledged  to  have  been  a  bold  at- 
tempt, which  could  only  have  been  conceived  by  a  com- 
prehensive mind,  and  a  man  of  great  practical  knowledge ; 
but  it  was  liberally  seconded  by  his  noble  employer,  and 
has  been  accomplished  with  admirable  success,  as  the  fol- 
lowing statement  of  the  improvement  by  drainage,  and 
the  expenditure  during  ten  years  preceding  1841,  upon 
such  parts  of  the  estate  as  have  been  drained,  will  suffi- 
ciently explain.  The  original  value  of  467A.  OR.  9P. 
was  £254  10s.  9d. ;  expenditure,  £1,508  17s.  4d.;  im- 
proved value,  £689  13s.  Id. ;  showing  an  improved  an- 
nual value  of  £435  2s.  4d.  These  lands  having  been 
effectually  drained,  Mr.  Bright's  next  object  was  to  collect 
so  much  of  the  drain  water  as  the  levels  permitted  into 
two  main  carriers,  for  the  purpose  of  employing  them  as 
a  power  to  turn  a  mill-wheel,  and  afterward  to  be  em- 
ployed in  irrigation.  For  the  former  object,  a  small  re- 
servoir has  been  constructed,  at  a  favorable  level,  about 
half  a  mile  distant  from  the  farm  ;  here,  at  the  farm-yard, 
a  mill  has  been  built,  which  does  infinite  credit  to  Mr. 
Bright ;  the  stream  of  water  was,  of  course,  not  sufficiently 
powerful  to  turn  an  undershot  wheel,  and  to  enable 
it  to  act  with  force,  it  was  necessary  to  bring  it  out  to  the 
upper  part  of  a  wheel  of  thirty  feet  diameter ;  this  wheel 
has  been  placed  in  the  rock,  thirty-five  feet  deep,  and  the 
headway  has  been  carried  from  the  bottom  through  the 
rock,  and  comes  out  in  a  valley  below,  at  the  distance  of 
five  hundred  yards.  The  mill  and  this  channel  for  the  water. 


QUANTITY   AND   QUALITY   OF   CROPS.  157 

costs  very  little  more  than  £1,000 ;  it  works  a  threshing  ma- 
chine, cuts  hay  and  straw,  and  kibbles  oats  and  barley  for 
the  stock,  consisting  of  about  two  hundred  and  fifty-horses 
and  cattle,  grinds  malt,  and  also  turns  a  circular  saw, 
which  does  a  great  part  of  the  sawing  for  a  large  estate. 
The  annual  saving  by  this  machine  has  been  estimated 
at  about  £400,  and  it  is  still  intended  to  apply  the  power 
to  other  purposes.  From  this  wheel,  and  from  another 
small  carrier,  which  is  made  to  pass  immediately  under 
the  farm-yard  (where  all  the  urine  and  moisture  that 
runs  from  the  manure  is  carefully  collected  in  a  reservoir 
which  overflows  into  the  carrier),  the  water  has  been  con- 
ducted over  lands,  principally  uplands,  containing  alto- 
gether eighty-nine  acres,  at  an  expenditure  of  only  £224 
4s.  10d.,  by  which  an  improvement  of  £2  per  acre  has 
been  effected,  or  £178  per  annum.  This  is  Mr.  Bright's  cal- 
culation, but  it  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  importance  of 
such  an  acquisition  as  eighty-nine  acres  of  productive 
water  meadow  to  a  large  farm  like  this,  on  which  there 
is  (especially  on  the  upper  part  of  it)  a  great  quan- 
tity of  very  dry  and  thin  soil.  I  know  no  other  place  in 
which  drain  water  has  been  turned  to  such  good  account. 
Luckily  the  water  is  all  soft,  and  good  for  irrigation : 

TOTAL  INCREASE  IN  VALUE  COLLECTED. 

£   8.   d.    £    8.  d. 

Lands  underdrained,  present  value,   -        -    689  13     1 

Original  value, 254  10     9 

435    2    4 

Estimated  saving  by  mill,    -  400    0    0 

Increase  in  value  of  water  meadows,      -  178    0    0 


Being  an  increased  value  of        -        -  £1,013    2    4 

Resulting  only  from  draining  467  acres,  and  employ- 
ment of  the  drain  water  over  89  acres  of  land ;  affording 


158  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

a  clear  annual  interest  on  the  outlay  of  full  thirty-seven 
per  cent.,  as  will  be  seen  the  following 


SUMMARY    OF    TOTAL    EXPENDITURE. 


Underdraining,  as  per  statement,       -  1,508  17     4 

Erecting  wheel  and  machinery,      -  1,000     0     0 

Irrigation, 224     4  10 


£2,733     2     2 

Mr.  Herman  Wauer,  a  draining  engineer  in  Prussia, 
says,  in  his  work  on  drainage :  "Two  years  ago  I  under- 
drained  a  plat  of  37  acres  of  sandy  clay,  at  an  expense 
of  324  thalers  ($216  U.  S.  currency).  The  two  years  pre- 
ceding, the  potato  crop  was  so  badly  rotted  that  it  did  not 
pay  the  expense  of  planting  and  harvesting.  The  year 
preceding  the  draining,  it  was  put  in  rye  and  produced 
the  miserable  amount  of  6  bushels  per  acre,  and  half  of 
that  was  chess  and  cockle.  After  it  was  drained  it  was 
sowed  in  oats,  and  produced  900  bushels  of  oats,  which 
were  sold  for  500  thalers  ($333  33).  The  next  year  it 
produced  5,400  bushels  of  potatoes,  which  were  sold  for 
1,500  thalers  ($1,000).  The  present  year  (1859)  the  crop 
of  barley  which  it  produced  was  excellent,  but  as  it  is  not 
yet  threshed  I  can  not  give  the  figures.  The  clover  which 
is  now  appearing  on  it  gives  promise  of  a  very  heavy 
crop." 

But  the  most  remarkable  example  of  the  increase  of 
crops  by  drainage  is  that  of  a  domain  in  Hanover.  A 
tenant  leased  it  in  1844.  The  tract  contained  an  area  of 
3,000  acres  of  heavy  wheat  land — all  of  it  in  an  arable 
condition — and,  notwithstanding  the  rent  appeared  to  be 
very  low,  yet  several  successive  tenants  became  bankrupt 
on  it.  But  the  last,  or  new  tenant,  was  an  intelligent  agri- 
culturist, who  had  thoroughly  studied  and  learned  how  to 
drain  in  England,  and  he  saw  at  a  glance  what  was  neces- 


QUANTITY   AND    QUALITY   OF   CROPS.  159 

sary  to  produce  good  crops.  He  employed  a  drainer,  and 
in  the  course  of  several  years  underdrained  the  entire 
tract,  and,  as  he  held  the  lease  for  some  years,  accumu- 
lated an  ample  fortune  on  it*  There  was  one  tract  on  this 
domain  of  82J  acres  (110  morgen)  which  gave  the  follow- 
ing results  : 

In  1842  it  lay  fallow,  because  it  was  too  wet  to  work  in 
seeding  time. 

In  1843  it  was  sowed  in  vetches,  but,  as  the  excessive 
moisture  destroyed  most  of  these,  they  were  plowed  down, 
the  land  manured,  and  rape  was  sowed.  This  crop,  in 
1844,  scarcely  paid  for  seeding  and  harvesting,  having 
been  badly  "winter-killed"  and  soured.  It  was  then 
drained,  and  produced  the  following  increased  crops,  as 
the  direct  result  of  drainage : 

In  1845  it  produced  1,944  bush,  wheat,  worth  4,860  thalers  ($3,240) 

1846  1,008     "      peas,         "      1,400      "      (933  33) 

1847  "          1,872     "      rye,  "      4,992       "  (3,328  00) 

1848  "          2,304    "      oats,         "         896       "      (597  00) 

1849  "          8,568     "      potatoes,  "      3,570      "  (2,380  00) 

I  have  been  unable  to  procure  returns  of  the  subsequent 
crops.  The  tile  were  brought  from  England,  and  this,  of 
course,  enhanced  their  .cost.  They  cost,  delivered  on  the 
domain,  25  thalers  for  morgen  ($22  21  per  acre),  in  the 
aggregate  $1,833.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  increased 
amount  of  the  first  crop  was  almost  double  the  entire  ex- 
pense incurred  in  underdraining. 

This  is,  perhaps,  the  most  remarkable  case  on  record 
of  increased  productiveness  in  consequence  of  under- 
draining. 

The  following  was  communicated  by  Mr.  James  M. 
Trimble,  of  Highland  county,  Ohio,  to  the  Ohio  Farmer. 
The  farm  on  which  the  mole  plow,  or  ditcher,  was  used  is 
situated  in  Fayette  county,  Ohio  : 


1GO  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

"  Mr.  Johnston's  answer  to  my  letter  of  inquiry,  published  in  the 
Farmer,  did  not  reach  me  until  I  had  purchased  the  implement, 
with  the  right  to  use  it;  else  I  should  have  hesitated,  and,  perhaps, 
not  bought  it.  Having  witnessed  the  operation  of  the  ditcher,  drawn 
by  a  pair  of  cattle,  cutting  at  the  rate  of  125  rods  of  ditch,  3  feet  4 
inches  deep,  in  a  single  day;  comparing  this  work  with  friend  John- 
ston's statement  of  a  20  horse  power  engine  being  required  to  operate 
it,  I  carne  to  the  conclusion  that  my  friend,  in  his  great  zeal,  as  the 
advocate  of  tile  drainage,  could  not  appreciate  the  mole  plow  as  a 
substitute.  This,  coupled  with  the  cost  of  tile  drains,  on  .a  farm  of 
over  1.700  acres,  four  fifths  of  which  requires  underdraining,  deter- 
red me  from  the  use  of  tile,  and  induced  me  to  give  the  mole  plow, 
at  least,  a  fair  trial,  before  throwing  it  aside.  To  accomplish  this.  1 
purchased  an  accurate  instrument  to  begin  with — an  engineer's 
level — and  with  it  ascertained  the  level  of  the  land  to  be  drained. 

"The  farm  lies  on  Rattlesnake,  the  creek  running  through  it  from 
north  to  south,  parallel  with  and  at  75  rods  from  the  east,  and  350 
to  400  rods  from  the  west  line  of  the  survey.  There  being  but  little 
fall  to  the  creek,  and  the  banks  low,  I  had  some  difficulty  in  procur- 
ing the  necessary  fall  to  my  open  drains,  to  give  a  free  outlet  to  un- 
derdrains,  confining  my  operations  to  some  230  acres  of  prairie  land 
on  the  west  bank  of  the  creek.  I  laid  out  my  open  ditches  from  the 
creek  west,  staking  them  off  at  every  six  rods,  and  marking  the  depth 
of  cut  and  width  of  ditch  on  each  stake.  In  this  way  I  laid  off  685 
rods  of  open  ditch,  at  80  rods  apart,  varying  in  depth  from  four  to 
six  feet,  and  in  width  from  six  to  eight  feet,  allowing  for  slope  of 
banks  one  and  three  fourths  feet  to  one  foot  in  hight,  which  was  let 
by  contract  at  65  cents  per  rod,  and  finished  in  October,  1858.  The 
underdrains  were  cut  in  March,  April  and  May.  My  son  superin- 
tending the  work,  he  laid  off  his  drains  with  the  level,  staking  them 
off  more  with  the  view  of  tapping  the  wettest  portions  of  land  be- 
tween the  open  ditches,  than  a  regard  to  straight  lines  or  thorough 
underdraining.  In  this  way,  with  the  ditcher,  two  yoke  of  cattle 
and  two  men,  in  16  days,  he  put  in  1,500  rods  of  underdrain,  at  a 
depth  of  three  feet  four  inches,  and  a  cost  of  $65. 

"At  the  time  of  running  the  mole  plow,  the  surface  of  the  ground 
was  covered  with  water,  from  one  to  six  inches  deep.  The  surface 
soil,  to  the  depth  of  from  one  to  two  and  a  half  feet,  is  a  black  clay. 
or  loam,  rather  a  compact,  tenacious  soil;  the  subsoil  is  a  close,  com- 
pact, yellow  clay,  to  the  depth  of  from  three  to  five  feet.  We  fol- 
lowed the  ditcher,  with  a  large  Illinois  sod  plow,  a  steel  plow  on 


QUANTITY  AND    QUALITY   OF   CROPS.  161 

wheels,  drawn  by  three  yoke  of  cattle,  one  of  Garrett  and  Cotman's 
steel  sod  plows,  a  No.  8,  drawn  by  three  horses,  and  four  steel  sod 
plows,  same  make  as  No.  4,  with  a  pair  of  horses  each,  and  broke 
the  sod  up  from  six  to  eight  inches  deep,  turning  the  furrows  flat, 
which  was  first  harrowed— 200  acres  of  it— with  the  furrows,  and 
then  crosswise.  It  was  then  marked  out,  four  feet  apart,  and  with 
Brown's  Illinois  corn-planter  planted  in  corn,  checkered  so  as  to  be 
cultivated  both  ways.  During  the  time  of  planting  we  broke  some 
"30  acres  which  had  been  partially  underdrained ;  the  sod  being 
tough  and  the  ground  very  dry,  it  broke  up  rough  and  uneven — so 
much  so  that  it  was  planted  (without  harrowing  or  marking  out) 
about  the  2d  to  the  4th  of  June. 

"  Our  first  planting  was  finished  the  23d  of  May.  On  the  4th  of 
June  it  was  up  (with  the  exception  of  what  the  cutworms  destroyed), 
and  from  six  to  sixteen  inches  high.  The  frost  on  the  morning  of 
the  5th  laid  it  all  level  with  the  ground.  The  largest  corn  seemed 
to  be  most  injured;  and  on  the  6th  the  work  of  plowing  up  and  re- 
planting was  commenced  and  continued,  until  the  200  acres  were  all 
replanted.  The  crop  was  .worked  three  times  over  with  double- 
shovel  plows ;  the  fourth  and  last  time  with  single  shovels.  The  30 
acres  last  planted  were  not  cultivated  in  any  way.  The  weather, 
from  May  23  to  September  10,  was  warm  and  dry— not  to  exceed 
half  an  inch  of  rain  fell  during  that  time.  The  corn  was  all  cut  up 
and  put  in  shocks  twelve  hills  square,  making  about  23  shocks  to  the 
acre.  We  have  husked  over  100  shocks,  and  feel  confident  that  the 
entire  crop  on  the  200  acres  will  average  60  bushels  per  acre ;  and 
the  30  acres  not  cultivated  will  yield  40  bushels  per  acre.  The  un- 
derdrains  all  performed  their  work  well  up  to  the  middle  of  July, 
when  they  began  to  fail,  and  by  the  1st  of  August  were  perfectly 
dry.  I  have  been  on  the  farm  from  the  3d  up  to  the  25th  of  Novem- 
ber, during  which  time  we  have  had  several  hard  rains ;  and  I  have 
examined  the  outlets  to  all  of  the  underdrains,  which,  without  a 
single  exception,  are  passing  off  large  quantities  of  water.  From  a 
close  observation  during  the  summer,  I  am  satisfied  that  the  under- 
drains were  quite  as  important  to  the  growing  crop  during  the 
drought,  from  May  to  September,  as  they  were  in  carrying  off  the 
surplus  water  in  the  spring ;  and  I  am  equally  certain  that  the  in- 
crease of  crop,  resulting  from  draining;  is  all  of  20  bushels  per  acre, 
which  would  leave  the  account  stand  thus :  685  rods  open  ditch,  at 
65  cents  per  rod,  $445  25;  1,500  rods  of  underdrain  cost  $65;  use 
of  ditcher,  wear  and  tear,  $25  75;  entire  cost,  $5-36.  Cr.,  by  20 
15 


162  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

bushels  of  corn,  on  230  acres,  give  4,600  bushels,  at  25  cents,  $1,150; 
showing  a  profit  of  $614  in  favor  of  the  mole  plow,  in  a  single  year. 
It  would  seein  superfluous  to  give  the  details  of  so  plain  an  opera- 
tion, as  I  have  done ;  yet  I  am  aware  of  the  fact  that,  in  many  in- 
stances, in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  my  farm,  the  use  of  the 
mole  plow  has  been  condemned,  from  the  fact  of  improper  use,  not 
procuring  sufficient  outlet,  running  the  ditches  too  shallow,  and  fail- 
ing to  reach  the  clay  subsoil  with  the  mole.  I  have  no  faith  in  the 
use  of  the  implement  without  a  clay  subsoil  for  the  mole  to  operate 
in ;  otherwise,  the  aperture  made  by  the  mole  will  cave  and  fill  up. 
I  have  purchased  an  additional  ditcher,  and  intend  to  carry  on  my 
operations  until  I  have  underdrained  my  farm — at  least,  all  that 
portion  requiring  drainage." 

Mr.  Nathaniel  Spalding,  of  Vermont,  purchased  a  small 
farm,  consisting  of  twenty-five  acres,  brook  meadow,  of 
clayey  soil;  some  part  of  it  approaching  to  swamp  muck; 
and  17  acres  upland,  of  cobble  stone  surface,  in  wood  and 
pasture — 42  acres  in  all.  Mr.  Spalding  said  that  he  bought 
it  at  auction,  and  moved  on  to  it  in  1853 — price  $460. 
"  An  old  shell  of  a  house  and  barn  "  (to  use  his  own  ex- 
pression) was  then  upon  it,  u  and  some  parts  of  the  mea- 
dow so  wet  that  a  team  could  not  be  driven  over  it  to  get 
what  little  poor  hay  grew  upon  it."  There  was  but  little 
of  it  that  could  be  plowed  to  advantage.  From  eight  to 
ten  tuns  water  grass  of  poor  quality  was  the  produce  of 
the  first  year's  hay  crop.  Mr.  Spalding  says  he  has  made 
over  600  rods  of  drain.  Main  ditches,  three  feet  wide,  and 
from  three  to  six  feet  deep ;  the  bottom  of  the  drains  are 
boards;  space  12  inches  square,  covered  with  flat  stones, 
with  shavings  from  the  lumber  with  which  he  was  erect- 
ing new  buildings,  and  hemlock  brush,  thrown  into  the 
drain  upon  the  covering  stones,  and  then  filled  with  earth. 
The  cost  of  these  main  ditches  averages  62J  cents  per  rod. 
His  cross  drains,  leading  into  the  main  ones,  are  four  rods 
apart,  15  inches  wide,  stones  (cobbles)  thrown  in  loose,  cov- 


QUANTITY  AND    QUALITY   OF   CROPS.  163 

ered  with  brush,  and  filled  with  earth.  The  cost  of  these 
cross  drains,  30  cents  per  rod. 

Mr.  Spalding  thinks  the  increase  of  production  for  the 
two  years  following  the  draining,  paid  the  whole  expense 
of  making  these  drains.  He  is  undoubtedly  correct  in  his 
estimates,  for  this  work  was  performed  by  himself  and 
boys.  Had  he  employed  other  labor,  or  contracted  it  out, 
at  the  high  prices  farm  labor  has  commanded  of  late,  it 
would  hardly  have  done  it ;  but  he  is  a  man  that  never 
puts  his  hand  to  the  plow  and  looks  back.  He  is  emphat- 
ically a  practical  man,  carrying  out  whatever  he  under- 
takes with  an  energy  and  skill  known  to  those  only  of  like 
determination.  Above  these  drains  where  clover  and 
timothy  now  grow  so  heavy  as  to  lodge,  a  poor  miserable 
water  grass  grew,  scarcely  worth  the  cutting  and  housing. 

Mr.  Spalding  says  the  production  of  these  25  acres  in 
1857,  only  four  years  from  the  time  he  commenced  on  the 
farm,  was  30  tuns  English  hay,  350  bushels  of  corn,  and 
250  bushels  oats.  And  this  from  a  soil,  though  not  ex- 
hausted, but  so  located  as  to  be  kept  saturated  and  filled 
with  cold  spring  water,  to  such  a  degree  as  to  discourage 
and  forbid  cultivation  only  on  the  driest  parts  and  in  the 
driest  season. 

We  found  the  following  in  "  a  paper,"  without  credit, 
but  presume  it  was  written  by  Luther  Tucker,  of  the 
Country  Gentleman: 

"  We  wish  to  give  additional  evidence  to  the  value  of  under- 
draining,  by  reporting  all  accurately  stated  experiments.  Having 
recently  made  some  on  a  small  scale,  we  add  them  to  the  list  The 
land  is  a  strong  loam  in  Cayuga  county,  a  medium  between  a  heavy 
clay  and  a  light  loam.  The  drains  were  cut  two  feet  nine  inches 
to  three  feet  deep,  two  rods  apart,  and  completed  with  tubular  tile 
two  inches  in  diameter.  The  work  being  done  where  the  proprietor 
could  not  oversee  it,  cost  40  cents  a  rod,  or  $32  per  acre. 

"  The  crops  on  this  drained  land,  the  present  season,  were  corn 


164  LAND  DRAINAGE. 

and  spring  wheat — and  being  cultivated  by  a  tenant,  did  not,  of 
course,  receive  the  best  treatment.  A  portion  of  the  cornfield  was 
on  a  strip  of  undrained  land.  The  season  proving  unusually  favor- 
able for  the  latter,  but  little  difference  could  be  perceived  till  the 
ears  had  set.  It  is  now  found,  however,  that  while  the  corn  on  the 
drained  land  is  a  least  forty  bushels  of  sound  shelled  corn  per  acre, 
the  undrained  portion  yields  scarcely  thirty  bushels,  and  of  poorer 
quality. 

''  With  the  spring  wheat  (China  Tea),  however,  the  disparity  is 
greater.  Before  draining,  fifteen  bushels  per  acre  was  regarded  a 
good  crop,  and  uncertain  at  that.  Three  scant  acres  were  sown  last 
spring  on  the  tile-drained  land,  and  yielded  eighty-one  bushels — 
equal  to  twenty-seven  bushels  per  acre.  The  wheat  sold  promptly 
for  a  dollar  per  bushel — and  would  probably  have  brought  more 
as  seed,  as  it  was  unusually  fine,  weighing  62  Ibs.  to  the  measured 
bushel. 

"  The  time  required  to  repay  the  cost  of  draining  would,  there- 
fore, be  as  follows  :  For  the  corn,  the  increase  being  ten  bushels 
per  acre,  at  seventy-five  cents  per  bushel,  four  years  would  be  re- 
quired, if  all  the  seasons  were  like  this.  But  they  are  commonly 
more  unfavorable — making  a  greater  difference  in  favor  of  the 
drains ;  the  best  cultivation  would  doubtless  place  the  time  for  full 
repayment  within  three  years.  The  increase  of  spring  wheat  being 
twelve  bushels  per  acre,  at  a  dollar  per  bushel,  repays  the  cost  in 
less  than  three  years." 

It  is  the  unanimous  opinion  of  all  who  have  observed 
closely,  that  the  plants  and  fruits  grown  upon  under- 
drained  soil  are  more  fully  developed,  and  of  much  better 
quality  than  those  grown  on  undrained  soil. 


CHAPTER   XIII. 


DRAINAGE  INCREASES  THE  EFFECTS  OF  MANURES. 

IT  has  been  demonstrated  that  dew,  rain  and  snow  carry 
with  them  certain  fertilizing  agents  of  great  importance 
to  vegetation,  such  as  carbonic  acid,  nitric  acid,  and  am- 
monia, or  these  combined,  as  carbonate  or  nitrate  of  am- 
monia. When  the  soil  is  in  a  condition  to  receive  all  the 
water  that  falls  upon  it  in  the  form  of  dew,  rain  or  melt- 
ing snow,  these  fertilizing  agents  are  carried  into  the  soil 
and  immediately  absorbed  by  it,  or  at  once  appropriated 
by  the  growing  crop.  When  the  soil  is  already  saturated 
by  water,  or  of  a  close,  impervious  character,  or  when  the 
surface  is  sufficiently  inclined,  the  water  is  compelled  to 
run  off,  and  carry  with  it,  whatever  elements  of  fertility 
it  contains.  Sandy  soils  readily  receive  water,  but  do  not 
as  readily  absorb  gases  as  soils  containing  clay  or  peat. 
Clay  lands  thoroughly  drained  and  deeply  tilled,  will  re- 
ceive almost  any  amount  of  water,  and  absorb  and  hold 
for  the  future  use  of  plants,  all  the  gaseous  fertilizers  the 
water  contains.  The  amount  of  these  fertilizers  brought 
down  by  the  rain,  differs  greatly  under  different  circum- 
stances. The  quantity  of  ammonia  is  found  to  be  much 
greater  near  cities  than  in  the  open  country.  The  amount 
of  nitric  acid  is  greater  after  thunder  storms,  and  in  sea- 
sons when  thunder  storms  are  frequent,  than  at  other 
times. 

It  has  been  asserted  (but  at  present  appears  to  be  a 
controverted  point)  that  the  elements  of  manure  act  upon 
plants  only  in  a  state  of  solution ;  hence  it  is  of  the  great^ 

(165) 


166  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

est  importance  that  they  be  so  applied,  and  that  the  soil 
be  so  prepared  that  they  may  not  only  be  readily  dis- 
solved by  the  rain,  but  that  the  rain  may  freely  pass 
through  the  soil,  which,  acting  as  a  filter,  arrests  and  holds 
these  elements  where  they  best  serve  as  food  for  vegeta- 
tion. On  undrained  lands  the  rains  dissolve  the  essential 
portions  of  the  manure  and  carry  them  off,  or  if  lands  are 
more  than  ordinarily  wet,  it  prevents  the  rotting  of  the 
manure.  Herman  Wauer  mentions  an  instance  where 
sheep  droppings  were  kept  from  rotting  by  moisture  for 
the  space  of  five  years.  This  is  one  great  reason  why 
manures  produce  such  trifling  results  on  heavy  lands, 
especially  in  seasons  of  abundant  moisture.  In  very  dry 
weather  but  little  more  effect  follows  their  application, 
from  the  want  of  a  solvent,  such  as  is  ever  supplied  by 
the  water  retained  in  mellow,  porous  earth. 

"  '  Draining  renders  the  land  penetrable  to  water,'  says  a  writer 
on  the  subject,  '  enabling  the  rain  to  descend  freely  through  it,  car- 
rying to  the  roots  the  fertilizing  elements  with  which  rain  water  is 
always  charged,'  as  well  as  those  it  takes  in  solution  from  manures. 
The  effect  of  manures  is  also  much  increased  by  an  intimate  mixture 
with,  the  soil.  Such  mixture  can  be  but  imperfectly  obtained  in  the 
case  of  hard  and  shallow  land,  either  in  a  wet  or  dry  state.  It  will 
always  be  found  that  mellow  and  friable  soils  receive  most  benefit 
from  manures,  and  that  clayey  soils,  if  made  mellow  by  draining, 
possess  the  greatest  absorbent  powers,  and  are  of  the  most  produc- 
tive character,  compared  with  sandy  and  light  or  mucky  loams. 

"  The  true  policy  of  the  farmer  is  to  use  every  means  in  his  power 
for  rendering  his  labor  more  effectual,  and  his  farm  more  fertile,  and 
in  no  way  can  this  be  better  accomplished  in  the  case  of  wet  and 
retentive  lands,  than  by  draining,  and  thus  deepening  and  increas- 
ing the  productive  powers  of  the  soil." 

Water  from  drains  has  repeatedly  been  collected  and 
analyzed,  and  that  under  all  imaginable  differences  of  con- 
dition. These  examinations  have  been  made  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  to  what  extent  the  water  of  drainage 


THE   EFFECTS   OF   MANURES.  167 

dtfes  bear  away  with  it  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  It  is  found 
that  drainage  water  does  carry  off,  in  solution,  in  appre- 
ciable quantities,  the  mineral  constituents  of  soils,  that  it 
would  be  desirable  to  retain.  As  might  be  expected,  the 
amount  of  loss  varies  greatly  in  different  circumstances ; 
from  sterile  lands,  the  amount  of  nitric  acid,  or  ammonia, 
is  less  than  what  is  furnished  in  the  rain  and  snow;  while 
on  highly  manured  lands  the  amount  of  loss  will  exceed 
what  is  obtained  from  the  atmosphere.  From  lands  well 
tilled,  and  in  a  perfectly  friable  condition,  the  loss  is 
greater  than  from  lands  imperfectly  tilled.  Where  a  crop 
is  growing  upon  the  soil,  ready  to  .appropriate  whatever 
is  presented  in  the  water  passing  through  the  soil,  less  of 
these  gases  escapes  than  where  the  ground  is  fallow.  The 
amount  of  loss  is  also  found  to  be  much  less  where  the 
drains  are  deep,  than  where  they  are  shallow.  Some  of 
the  conclusions  arrived  at,  on  this  subject,  are  :  That  there 
need  be  no  fear  that  underdraining  will  rob  the  soil  of  its 
fertility,  because  the  rain,  which  would  run  from  the  un- 
derdrained  lands  and  be  lost,  will  either  wholly  or  par- 
tially compensate  for  any  loss  that  occurs  through  the 
drains — that  there  is  no  method,  except  by  drainage  and 
deep  culture,  by  which  stiff,  clayey  lands  can  be  made  to 
appropriate  all  the  elements  of  fertility  furnished  by  the 
atmosphere — that  it  is  better  not  to  manure  excessively, 
at  long  intervals,  because  a  part  of  the  unappropriated 
manure  will  probably  be  washed  through  the  soil  and  lost, 
and,  therefore,  it  is  better  to  apply  manure  as  it  is  re- 
quired to  meet  the  present  demand.  Manure  is  better 
applied  in  a  liquid  state,  for  if  the  soil  be  dry  and  deep, 
and  therefore  in  a  good  condition  for  absorbing  manure, 
it  will  combine  with  the  elements  of  the  soil  at  once,  and 
the  surplus  of  water  will  run  from  the  deep  drains  perfectly 
clear  and  inodorous.  It  is  better  never  to  permit  naked 


168  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

fallows  on  such  lands,  because  the  soil  will  be  losing  more 
through  the  drain  than  it  gains  from  the  atmosphere ;  and 
much  more  than  it  will  lose,  if  covered  by  a  growing  crop ; 
but  on  poor,  clayey  soils,  the  case  is  the  reverse ;  and  it 
is  possible  for  such  soils,  while  undergoing  the  comminu- 
tion and  exposure  of  fallowing,  to  gain  more  from  the  at- 
mosphere than  they  would  probably  lose  from  the  drains. 
The  loss  of  any  fertilizing  agent  by  drainage  is  wholly 
avoided,  however,  in  countries  where  drainage  and  irriga- 
tion are  properly  and  systematically  combined.  The  waters 
from  manured  and  tilled  lands,  being  conducted  over  the 
meadows  belowT,  yield  up  whatever  of  fertility  they  have 
brought  with  them,  and  thus  nothing  is  lost. 


CHAPTER     XIV. 


DRAINAGE   PREVENTS   RUST  IN  WHEAT  AND  ROT  IN 
POTATOES. 

THE  wheat  growers  of  Ohio  have  often  had  the  misfor- 
tune to  see  that  which  promised  a  bountiful  harvest  sud- 
denly blighted  by  mildew  or  rust.  In  regions  where  a 
gravelly  subsoil  is  "found,  the  wheat  crop  seldom  suffers 
from  rust ;  but  the  wheat  is  frequently  "rusted"  on  grav- 
elly soils  which  rest  upon  hard  pan,  or  impervious  clays. 
Rust  or  mildew  also  most  frequently  attacks  wheat  on  bot- 
tom lands,  where  considerable  moisture  prevails. 

In  all  our  reading  and  observation  we  have  never  heard 
nor  seen  a  well-underdrained  field  of  wheat  attacked  by 
rust,  and  therefore  infer  that  drainage  acts  as  a  preven- 
tive of  this  very  undesirable  phenomenon. 

A  series  of  experiments  made  in  1857,  by  H.  B.  Spen- 
cer, of  Rockport,  Cuyahoga  county,  proves  almost  conclus- 
ively that  the  rot  in  potatoes  is  due  to  excessive  moisture. 
We  know  numerous  instances  where  potatoes,  grown  on 
ground  having  a  northern  exposure,  were  sound  on  the 
most  elevated  portions  of  the  field,  but  badly  rotted  on 
the  lower  or  most  moist.  One  instance  we  remember 
more  particularly,  where  the  potatoes  on  the  hillside  were 
all  sound,  and  on  the  bottom  or  swale  they  were  not  worth 
digging.  No  case  of  potato  rot  on  well-underdrained 
ground  has  come  to  our  knowledge.  From  this  fact,  and 
from  Mr.  Spencer's  experiments,  we  are  inclined  to  be- 
lieve that  underdraining  will  prevent  rot  in  potatoes. 

The  fact  that  drainage  lengthens  the  seasons,  will  per- 
mit wheat  to  be  sown  later  in  the  fall,  and  thus  avoid  the 
16  (169) 


170  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

ravages  of  the  Hessian  fly  (eecidomyia  destructor),  and  as 
the  wheat  will  vegetate  more  rapidly  and  ripen  earlier  in 
spring  or  summer  on  underdrained  ground,  therefore  the 
ravages  of  the  " midge,"  "fly,"  or  "weevil"  (cecidomyia 
iritici),  will  be  greatly  lessened,  if,  indeed,  not  entirely 
prevented. 


CHAPTER     XV. 


OTHER  ADVANTAGES  OF  DRAINAGE. 

DRAINAGE  is  of  great  advantage  in  many  other  respects ; 
among  these  it  may  be  stated  that 

Drainage  facilitates  Pulverization. — One  object  of 
plowing  land  is  to  pulverize  it,  and  render  it  workable. 
Every  one  knows  that  a  wet  soil  can  never  be  pulverized, 
and  plowing  a  clayey  or  loamy  soil,  when  wet,  does,  per- 
haps, more  injury  than  if  it  were  not  plowed  at  all,  be- 
cause, if  plowed  when  wet,  the  soil  is  pressed  together, 
and  is  turned  over  by  the  plow  in  almost  unbroken  slices, 
which  become  very  hard  clods  when  dry,  and  render  it 
difficult  of  culture.  Pulverization  of  the  soil  is  so  essen- 
tial that,  more  than  a  hundred  years  ago,  Jethro  Tull  ad- 
vocated the  idea  that  complete  comminution  or  pulveriza- 
tion of  the  soil  was  a  complete  substitute  for  manure.  In 
fact,  the  little  book  recently  published  by  a  London  house, 
entitled  "Tillage  a  Substitute  for  Manure"  is  made  up 
mainly  from  the  writings  of  Jethro  Tull.  The  Lois 
Weedon  system  of  culture,  by  which  more  than  a  dozen 
successive  good  crops  of  wheat  were  harvested  from  the 
same  piece  of  ground,  is  simply  another  application  of 
the  principle  advocated  by  Tull ;  and,  while  this  system 
is  not  drainage  in  a  direct  sense,  it  undoubtedly  partially 
answers  the  purpose  of  drainage.  Cultivating  to  the 
depth  of  th-ee  feet,  as  the  Lois  Weedon  system  requires, 
must  certainly  lower  the  water  line,  and  thus  consummate 
one  of  the  objects  of  drainage.  The  deeper  any  soil  is 
cultivated,  the  better  will  it  produce. 

If  the  water  is  withdrawn  from  the  soil,  teams  can  pass 
(171) 


172  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

over  it  with  less  injury  to  the  soil  than  on  that  which  is 
not  underdrained.  The  undrained  clay,  when  tramped 
by  cattle  pasturing,  or  by  being  frequently  hauled  over, 
acquires  a  consistency  to  hold  water,  from  which  under- 
drained  land  is  exempt.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  haul 
manure  either  in  the  winter  or  early  in  the  spring,  and, 
in  many  instances,  as  much  injury  is  done  to  the  land  in 
hauling  as  the  manure  benefits  it. 

Drainage  prevents  Surface  Washing. — Many  plowed 
fields,  especially  where  the  land  is  rolling,  suffer  greatly 
in  spring  and  fall  time,  from  "  washing  "  by  heavy  rains. 
On  drained  lands,  the  rain  is  at  once  absorbed,  and  wash- 
ing is  thus  prevented. 


CHAPTER    XVI. 


WILL  DRAINAGE  PAY. 

IST.  For  the  Garden. — With  regard  to  lands  designed 
for  garden  uses,  that  have  a  compact  subsoil,  there  can 
not  be  a  doubt  of  the  economy  of  underdraining.  Earli- 
ness  and  depth  of  soil  are  essential  to  a  good  garden ; 
and  in  many  localities  these  conditions  can  not  otherwise 
be  secured.  Drained  lands  freeze  to  a  greater  depth 
than  the  undrained,  but  they  are  much  sooner  dry  and 
fit  for  working,  or  for  seed,  in  the  spring.  And  dur- 
ing the  summer,  however  wet  the  season,  or  recent  the 
rain,  the  underdrained  land  may  be  worked  so  soon  that 
the  weeds  do  not  necessarily  get  a  start. 

Ground  that  is  made  dry  underneath  may  be  cultivated 
to  any  desired  depth,  and  may  then  be  brought  to  any  de- 
gree of  richness,  without  the  bad  effects  that  sometimes 
follow  excessive  manuring  on  shallow  soils ;  and  the  deeper 
the  soil  is  stirred,  the  less  injury  is  sustained  from  drought. 
The  expense  of  draining  a  garden  thoroughly  is,  there- 
fore, a  mere  trifle,  compared  with  the  benefits  that  may 
be  obtained  from  the  outlay. 

2d.  For  Nursery  Uses,  the  soil  must  be  susceptible  of 
deep,  early  and  frequent  tillage.  These  conditions  can 
only  be  secured  on  lands  having  a  loose  subsoil,  or  such 
as  have  been  well  drained.  When  drainage  is  necessary, 
the  outlay  of  $20  or  $25  an  acre  will  be  more  than  re- 
turned in  a  single  season. 

3d.  The  Orchard  will  pay  as  well  for  drainage  as  the 
garden.  The  necessity  of  dry  land  for  the  orchard  is  so 
generally  admitted  that  the  highest  and  driest  parts  of 


174  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

the  farm  are  almost  everywhere  selected  for  this  purpose. 
Orchards  planted  on  river  bottoms,  in  preference  to  clayey 
uplands,  are  no  exception  to  this ;  for  the  bottoms,  beside 
having  the  deepest  soil  have  the  loosest  subsoil,  and  are 
consequently  driest  underneath.  Apple  trees,  planted 
over  a  subsoil  that  is  for  a  large  portion  of  the  year  sat- 
urated with  moisture,  are  never  thrifty,  productive  or 
long-lived.  Of  the  various  expedients  that  may  be  em- 
ployed to  secure  the  growth  of  an  orchard  on  wet  land, 
the  cheapest  and  most  reliable  is  underdrainage.  The 
drains  should  be  about  three  feet  below  the  surface,  and 
midway  between  the  rows  of  trees ;  if  they  are  more  di- 
rectly under  the  trees,  the  roots  find  their  way  into  the 
drains  and  ultimately  close  them.  In  preparing  for  an 
orchard,  it  is  desirable  to  subsoil  the  ground  as  deeply  as 
possible  across  the  drains  before  planting.  The  whole 
expense  of  such  preparation  is  so  inconsiderable,  com- 
pared with  the  value  of  one  year's  produce  of  a  good 
orchard,  that,  even  without  taking  into  account  the  in- 
creased longevity  of  the  trees,  there  is  no  question  about 
the  profitableness  of  underdraining. 

4th.  Tilled  Lands. — There  are  two  principal  advantages 
derived  from  the  thorough  drainage  of  tilled  lands.  The 
first  is,  the  lengthening  out  of  the  time  in  which  work 
may  be  done,  because  the  drained  lands  may  be  plowed  so 
much  sooner  than  the  undrained.  But  the  chief  benefit 
is  the  increase  of  the  crop.  In  Old  England  the  average 
wheat  crop  has  more  than  doubled  since  draining  was  un- 
dertaken in  earnest.  Results  equally  favorable,  though 
on  a  smaller  scale,  have  been  obtained  in  the  state  of  New 
York,  and  also  in  Ohio.  This  increase  depends  not  so 
much  on  larger  crops  than  were  ever  grown  without  drain- 
age, but  in  lessening  greatly  the  causes  of  failure,  so  that 


WILL   DRAINAGE   PAY.  175 

a  fair  crop  is  much  more  certain.  Where  the  expense  of 
drainage  is  $20  or  even  $25  an  acre,  an  increase  of  four 
or  five  bushels  of  wheat  to  the  acre  on  every  crop,"  or  of 
ten  or  fifteen  bushels  of  corn,  would  make  the  drainage  an 
excellent  investment — far  better,  indeed,  than  money 
loaned  at  ten  per  cent,  per  annum.  But  this  is  not  the 
principal  advantage  ;  for  on  drained  lands  a  good  crop  of 
grain  is  often  grown,  while  on  adjoining  lands,  precisely 
similar  and  with  the  same  tillage,  the  crop  is  a  failure,  so 
that  the  difference  in  one  year  has  exceeded  the  whole 
expense  of  the  drainage.  There  is  another  fact,  also, 
worthy  of  mention :  the  quality  of  wheat  and  other  grains 
is  greatly  improved  by  the  steady  growth  which  good 
drainage  secures,  the  grain  being  uniformly  plumper,  thin- 
ner skinned,  and  therefore  heavier. 

5th.  Grass  Lands. — It  is  desirable  to  have  pasture  lands 
sound  and  dry,  and  fit  for  the  tread  of  animals  as  soon  as 
the  feed  starts  in  the  spring.  It  is  equally  desirable  to 
have  grasses  root  deeply,  so  as  to  escape  the  influence  of 
summer  droughts.  It  is  also  advantageous  to  have  lands 
in  such  a  condition  that  they  will  produce  a  variety  of 
grasses,  which,  by  their  different  periods  of  ripening,  will 
keep  the  pastures  fresh  through  the  entire  season.  Or- 
chard grass  and  red  clover  will  not  prosper  unless  the  soil 
be  dry  and  loose.  In  meadows  that  are  too  wet,  the  red- 
top  will  gradually  take  the  place  of  timothy,  and  what  is 
still  worse,  wild  and  innutritions  grasses  will  take  the  place 
of  all  the  cultivated  kinds. 

It  is  doubtless  true  that  grass  will  grow  upon  land  too  wet 
for  any  other  purpose,  but  it  is  a  great  mistake  to  suppose 
that  land  can  not  be  too  wet  for  grass.  The  best  varieties 
of  grass,  the  heaviest  crops  of  hay,  and  the  most  uni- 
formly fresh  pastures,  are  to  be  found  on  soil  properly 
drained.  But  will  it  pay  to  incur  an  expense  of  $20  an 


176  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

acre  for  these  advantages  ?  The  dairy  farmer  can  readily 
see  that  it  will  pay,  if,  by  draining  a  piece  of  wet  clayey 
land,  and  afterward  subsoiling  and  seeding  with  orchard 
grass  and  clover,  he  can  thereby  secure  a  month's  pastur- 
age in  the  spring,  before  the  grass  has  started  elsewhere, 
and  fresh  green  feed  through  the  months  of  July  and  Au- 
gust, while  other  pastures  are  all  dried  up.  Good  pastur- 
age at  such  times  is  certainly  worth  more  to  the  dairyman 
or  any  stock  farmer  than  the  annual  interest  on  the  money 
expended  for  the  improvement. 

It  is  cheaper  to  increase  crops  by  drainage  than  by  the 
purchase  and  cultivation  of  additional  acres.  Drained 
lands  pay  no  more  tax,  cost  no  more  fencing,  and  require 
no  more  labor  than  the  undrained.  When  the  cost  of 
drainage  has  once  been  paid,  the  increase  of  crops  involves 
no  new  expense,  as  would  necessarily  be  the  case  if  the 
same  increase  were  obtained  from  the  cultivation  of  more 
land. 

Some  may  be  inclined  to  defer  this  work  of  drainage 
until  tiles  can  be  obtained  at  lower  rates.  It  is  probable 
that  tiles  wrill  be  cheaper  and  more  readily  obtained  in  a 
few  years,  but  this  will  only  happen  if  a  good  demand  for 
them  is  established.  The  true  wa,y  to  have  tiles  cheaper 
is  to  begin  to  use  them  wherever  it  will  pay  at  present 
prices.  An  increased  demand  will  probably  secure  a  bet- 
ter supply  and  at  lower  rates. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 


WHAT  LANDS    NEED    DRAINING. 

1.  Low  Places,  Swamps,  etc. — Where  the  surface  is  de- 
pressed, and  water  is  received  from  the  surrounding  lands, 
the  necessity  for  drainage  of  some  kind  is  obvious  enough. 
This  may  be  effected  by  open  ditches;  and  these, perhaps, 
are  the  most  economical,  where  the  quantity  of  water  to 
be  disposed  of  is  very  great.     But  where  ditches  would 
be  inconvenient,  or  gradually  fill  in  by  frost  or  the  tread- 
ing of  cattle,  or  prove  an  eye-sore,  underdraining  may  be 
substituted,  and,  if  properly  done,  with  the  effect  of  con- 
verting a  low  place  or  swamp  into  a  garden,  while  a  single 
open  ditch  up  the  center,  which  is  the  usual  course,  would 
have  left  the  ground  wet  and  cold;  for  if  the  water,  in  its 
descent  from  the  higher  ground,  be  but  arrested  at  the 
edge  of  the  low  lands,  by  ditches  or  drains,  it  is  compelled 
to  traverse  the  low  land  to  the  center  ditch,  and  does  its 
mischief  before  it  can  escape.     Wet  and  swampy  lands, 
when  thoroughly  drained,  are  found  to  be  among  the  most 
productive,  and  hence  their  improvement  by  drainage  is 
most  marked  and  satisfactory. 

2.  Springy  Places. — At  the  foot  of  hills,  ridges  and 
highlands,  the  water  if  often  found  even  in  a  dry  time, 
oozing  out,  not,  perhaps,  at  a  single  point,  or  in  suffi- 
cient quantity  to  make   a  useful   spring,  but  enough  to 
make  the  land  for  rods  or  acres  around,  wet  and  cold, 
and  worthless.      In  such  situations    a  single  drain,  in 
the  right  place,  is  often  sufficient  to  put  an  end  to  the 
mischief,  and  change  worthless  into  fertile  land.  But  what 
is  oftentimes,  and  in  many  places,  still  a  greater  benefit, 

(177) 


178  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

the  water  which  before  evaporated  injuriously  on  the  sur- 
face is  collected  by  the  drain,  and  made  available  at  a  con- 
venient point  for  stock  purposes,  forming  an  artificial 
spring  as  durable  and  often  more  useful  than  those  formed 
naturally.  On  farms  as  poorly  supplied  with  stock  water 
as  many  in  Ohio,  the  drainage  and  improvement  of  all 
springy  places  should  be  effected  without  delay. 

3.  Sandy  or  Porous  Soils  with  Clayey  Sabsoils. — Sandy 
soils,  as  every  one  must  have  observed,  are  not  always 
warm  and  dry.  There  is  sometimes  found  at  the  depth 
of  a  foot,  or  it  may  be  of  two  or  three  feet  below  the 
surface,  a  layer  of  impervious  clay,  through  which  no 
water  can  pass,  but  on  the  top  of  which  it  must  flow,  if  there 
be  an  inclination  in  any  direction,  with  the  effect  of  keep- 
ing the  surface  constantly  damp  and  cold.  In  all  parts 
of  the  state  such  lands  may  be  found ;  they  appear  mel- 
low and  rich,  but  are  always  cold  and  weedy,  and  produce 
no  valuable  crop.  They  are  much  more  easily  and 
cheaply  underdrained  than  clayey  lands,  because  a  differ- 
ent system  may  be  pursued;  and  when  drained,  they 
soon  lose  all  their  disagreeable  and  unproductive  qualities. 

5.  Clayey  and  Impervious  Soils. — Clayey  soils  trans- 
mit water  downward,  but  slowly ;  and  consequently,  in  a 
wet  time,  the  surface  soon  becomes  perfectly  saturated 
with  moisture.  It  is  too  wet  for  crops,  too  wet  to  till, 
too  wet  to  bear  the  tread  of  animals ;  in  short,  it  is  too 
wet  for  anything.  In  drying,  it  sets  hard,  and  becomes 
more  unmanageable  than  ever ;  the  roots  of  grasses  or 
other  plants  can  not  penetrate  to  any  considerable  depth, 
and  clayey  lands  are  therefore  the  first  to  suffer  from  ex- 
cessive drought,  as  well  as  from  excessive  moisture ;  there 
is  scarcely  a  season  that  exactly  suits  them,  and  only  a 
limited  portion  of  the  best  of  seasons  that  they  can  be 
comfortably  worked.  When  such  lands  are  thoroughly 


WHAT   LANDS.  NEED   DRAINING.  179 

drained,  and  at  sufficient  depth,  the  surface  never  becomes 
saturated  with  moisture  ;  and  in  drying  it  never  sets  hard. 
A  deeper  tillage  becomes  possible,  and  is  indeed  required 
to  secure  the  full  benefits  of  the  drainage.  With  the 
deeper  tillage,  the  roots  of  plants  enter  the  earth  to  a 
greater  depth,  and  suffer  less  from  drought.  Clayey  lands, 
when  drained,  can  be  worked  at  almost  any  time ;  they 
become  more  friable  in  texture,  cost  less  in  their  culti- 
vation, are  suited  to  almost  any  crop,  and  retain  their 
fertility  longer  than  lands  of  almost  any  other  description. 
The  writers  on  the  continent  of  Europe  on  drainage 
attach  great  importance  to  plants,  as  being  the  best  ex- 
ponents of  the  quality  of  the  soil,  and  of  its  condition. 
Herman  Wauer,  in  his  work  on  Drainage,  has  compiled  a 
list  of  plants,  occupying  nearly  ten  pages  of  his  book. 
He  states  very  positively  that  whenever  any  of  the  plants 
named  in  the  catalogue  occur  in  a  field,  in  observable 
quantities,  that  that  field  requires  drainage.  Almost  all 
the  German  works  on  drainage  contain  similar  catalogues ; 
these  lists  of  plants  have  very  little  or  no  practical  value 
in  this  country,  from  the  fact  that  either  we  have  many 
plants  which  do  not  appear  in  Germany,  and  which  are 
equally  as  good  indices  as  are  those  named  by  them,  which 
do  here ;  but  upon  the  whole,  not  one  fourth  of  the  plants 
named  by  these  writers  occur  here,  or  else  the  nomencla- 
ture is  so  different  that  we  have  failed  to  recognize  our 
plants  in  the  lists. 

We  translate  the  following  from  BarralPs  (France)  great 
work  (3  vols.)  on  Drainage : 

"  External  Signs  of  the  want  of  Drainage.— The  aspect  of  the 
soil  after  heavy  rains,  or  great  protracted  heat,  the  mode  of  culture 
and  the  nature  of  the  vegetation  are  very  conspicuous  characteristic 
signs,  by  the  help  of  -which  we  can  easily  tell  that  a  ground  needs 
to  be  drained. 


180  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

"  Whenever  after  a  rain,  water  stays  in  the  furrows ;  wherever  stiff 
and  plastic  earth  adheres  to  the  shoes ;  wherever  the  foot  of  either 
man  or  horse  makes  cavities  that  retain  water,  like  so  many  little 
cisterns;  wherever  cattle  are  unable  to  penetrate,  without  sinking 
into  a  kind  of  mud ;  wherever  the  sun  forms  on  the  earth  a  hard 
crust,  slightly  cracked,  and  compressing  the  roots  of  the  plants  as 
into  a  vice ;  wherever  three  or  four  days  after  rain,  slight  depres- 
sions in  the  ground  show  more  moisture  than  other  parts ;  wherever 
a  stick,  forced  into  the  ground  one  foot  and  a  half  deep,  forms  a  hole 
like  a  little  well,  having  water  standing  at  its  bottom ;  wherever  tra- 
dition consecrated,  as  advantageous,  the  cultivation  of  lands  by 
means  of  convex,  high,  large  ridges;  one  may  affirm  that  drainage 
will  produce  good  effects. 

"When  water  stands  on  the  surface,  after  rain,  or  when  it  oozes 
from  the  inside,  from  below  as  farmers  say,  there  is  no  doubt  that 
drainage  will  be  the  best  improvement  that  can  be  made. 

"  In  all  the  above  cases,  vegetation  can  not  easily  take  place  ;  crops 
are  scanty  and  often  amount  to  nothing ;  the  species  of  plants  which 
find  that  kind  of  lands  hospitable,  signalize  them  spontaneously  to 
the  exercised  eyes  of  an  observing  visitor ;  those  parasitical  plants 
are  in  possession  of  wet  lands,  and  often  expel  therefrom  productive 
vegetation ;  weeding  is  of  no  avail,  drainage  only  can  effect  the  cure 
and  restore  wholesomeness  to  the  ground,  and  life  to  the  crops. 

"  Upon  the  ground  which  was  drained  at  the  Agricultural  Institute 
at  Versailles  (farm  of  the  menagerie),  and  which  is  composed  of 
green  clay,  of  plastic  and  somewhat  calcareous  nature,  our  great 
botanist,  M.  Boitel,  determined  the  nature  of  the  indigenous  growth 
which  covered  it;  this  nomenclature  may  be  used  as  a  pattern,  and 
therefore  we  reproduce  it.  The  number  100,  in  the  following  table, 
shows  the  most  common  kind ;  the  other  species  have  figures  lower 
and  lower,  in  proportion  as  they  become  more  scarce : 

Proportional  fig.        Latin  uame  of  the  species.  Vulgar  name. 

100  Juncus  communis,  Common  rush. 

83  Plantago  lanceolata,  Plantain. 

67  Colchieum  autumnale, 

50  Equisetum  arvense, 

50  Ranunculus  acris  ;  R.  bulbosus, 

50  Carex  riparia, 

50  Hypericum  tctrapterum, 

33  Ajuga  genevensis, 

33  Cirsium  palustre, 


WHAT   LANDS   NEED   DRAINING.  181 

Proportional  fig.        Latin  name  of  the  species.  Vulgar  name. 

33  Cardamine  pratensis, 

33  Agrimonia  eupatoria, 

17  Valeriana  dioica, 

17  Caltha  palustris, 

17  Rumex  acetosa ;  R.  crispus, 

1.2  Trifolium  pratense ;  T.  repens,  Clover. 

0.8  Orchis  latifolia, 

0.4  Anthuxunthuin  odoratum. 

Mr.  Boitel  adds:  "The  animals  will  readily  eat  the  clover  and  the 
Anthoxanthum  only.  One  sees  in  what  proportions  they  are  found 
in  wet  meadows.  The  other  species  are  mostly  of  a  nature  not  suited 
for  forage  and  characterize  wet  lands.  The  colchicum  autumnale  is 
known  to  everybody;  from  afar  its  leaves  look  like  those  of  the  large 
leek;  its  blossoms,  of  soft,  lilac  hue,  are  about  three  and  a  half 
inches  long,  and  make  their  appearance  during  autumn,  after  the  fall 
of  the  leaves;  its  fruit  winters  in  the  ground;  in  the  springtime  the 
fruit  stretches  out  and  sprouts,  surrounded  with  large,  compressed 
leaves ;  it  is  a  plant  very  poisonous,  which  cattle  are  careful  not  to 
touch ;  they  eat  it,  nevertheless,  at  the  stable,  when  mingled  with 
hay ;  a  very  small  portion  will  then  poison  and  kill  them.  This 
noxious  plant  is  very  common  in  wet  meadows ;  it  is  dangerous,  and 
occupies  the  place  of  a  great  many  others  that  would  be  profitable. 
In  order  to  destroy  it,  dig  out  the  bulbs  or  onions,  and  thereby  pre- 
vent the  seeds  from  disseminating  themselves  over  the  whole  meadow. 
The  bulbs,  being  sunk  about  eight  inches  into  the  ground,  would 
cause  their  extraction  to  be  difficult,  but  the  produce  of  an  abundant 
and  better  vegetation  will  shortly  compensate  trouble  and  expenses. 
"  Together  with  this  plant,  rushes,  ranunculacea,  sorrel,  etc.,  are  cer- 
tain indications  of  the  utility  of  drainage ;  they  are  fond  of  moisture; 
it  is,  therefore,  obvious  that  drainage  will  cause  them  to  languish 
and  to  die,  to  be  soon  replaced  by  species  of  better  quality.  It  is 
only  by  thorough  ditching,  or  rather  by  underdrainage — the  effects 
of  which  are  still  more  efficient — that  one  will  succeed  in  obtaining 
so  fortunate  a  transformation." 

We  neglected  to  state  in  the  proper  place  that  all  lands 
whose  indigenous  growth  of  timber  was  beech,  maple,  ash, 
elm,  or  any  other  kinds  of  timber  or  shrubs  requiring  wet 
soil,  is  seldom  tillable,  and  never  profitably  so,  until  it  is 
underdrained. 


182  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

Some  years  since,  Congress  proposed  to  donate  to  each 
state  the  amount  of  swamp  lands  which  they  respectively 
contained.  In  Ohio  every  county  was  authorized  to  com- 
mission a  surveyor,  or  other  competent  person,  to  ascer- 
tain the  number  of  acres  of  swamp  land  in  each  county, 
and  report  to  the  auditor  of  state.  Not  more  than  five 
or  six  counties  availed  themselves  of  this  opportunity  to 
bring  the  remnants  of  public  lands  into  market,  and  the 
total  number  of  acres  reported  amounted  to  28,000  only. 
Governor  S.  P.  Chase  expressed  the  opinion  that  Ohio 
was  entitled  to  the  entire  amount  of  public  lands  within 
her  territory  as  swamp  lands — at  that  time  about  250,000 
acres.  But  even  this  amount  is  less  than  the  actual 
amount  of  swamp  lands  in  the  state. 

It  is  almost  unnecessary  to  state  that  open  ditches  are 
not  required  on  underdrained  grounds,  except  as  main 
drains,  leading  to  a  creek  or  river ;  neither  is  the  furrow 
necessary  between  lands  for  the  purpose  of  surface  drain- 
age. By  discarding  the  furrows,  considerable  area  for 
the  growth  of  plants  is  added  to  the  field;  and  in  this  par- 
ticular, by  increasing  the  superficial  area,  drainage  is  a 
twofold  benefit. 

We  observed,  while  traveling  on  the  cars  over  the  Day- 
ton and  Michigan  railroad,  throughout  the  "Black  Swamp" 
region,  through  which  this  road  passes,  that  ditches  were 
made  in  removing  the  earth  in  constructing  the  road, 
which  answered  an  admirable  purpose  for  draining.  In 
consequence  of  these  ditches,  the  timber,  being  of  that 
class  which  flourishes  best  in  a  moist  or  wet  soil,  for  sev- 
eral rods  on  each  side  of  the  road,  was  either  dead  or 
dying — the  ditches  evidently  drained  to  the  extent  of  sev- 
eral rods  in  every  direction,  and  the  trees,  finding  them- 
selves deprived  of  their  accustomed  supply  of  moisture, 
could  no  longer  vegetate  or  exist.  Not  only  were  the 


WHAT   LANDS   NEED   DRAINING.  183 

trees  dying,  but  the  succulent  plants,  which  require  a  wet 
soil,  had  released  their  claim,  in  consequence  of  man's  im- 
provement, and  yielded  their  place  to  plants  requiring  less 
moisture.  Hence,  the  cheapest  and  most  effectual  method 
of  ridding  meadows  of  "  sour  grasses"  (carices)  is  to  un- 
derdrain. 

Annexed  is  a  list  of  plants  whose  presence  is  always 
an  unmistakable  evidence  of  the  necessity  of  drainage — 
because  they  flourish  only  in  very  moist  or  wet  soil.  At 
the  same  time  we  are  well  aware  that  every  practical 
farmer  understands  the  condition  of  his  soil  better  perhaps 
than  he  does  botany,  but  there  are  others  who  may  wish  to 
engage  in  agricultural  operations  who  understand  botany 
better  than  they  do  the  character  or  condition  of  soils. 
In  the  "  Wheat  Plant "  we  devoted  a  chapter  to  an  exam- 
ination of  the  characteristics  and  qualities  of  soil,  as  in- 
dicated by  the  indigenous  forest  trees  which  it  produced, 
and  the  following  list  is  a  further  demonstration  of  the 
same  idea.  As  soon  as  the  soil  is  properly  underdrained, 
all  the  plants  named  in  the  list  will  disappear,  because 
their  accustomed  supply  of  moisture  will  then  be  with- 
drawn, and  they,  of  course,  will  perish. 

Botanical  Name.  Common  Name. 

Ranunculus  alismaefolius,  Water  plantain,  Spearwort. 

"  sceleratus,  Cursed  crowfoot. 

"  Pennsylvanicus,  Bristly  crowfoot. 

Caltha  palustris,  Marsh  marigold. 

Nasturtium  officinale,  Water  cress. 

"  palustre,  Marsh  cress. 

Cardamine  pratensis,  Cuckoo  flower. 

Impatiens  pallida,  Pale  touch-me-not. 

"          fulva,  Spotted  touch-me-not.  v 

Floerkea  proserpinacoides,  False  mermaid. 

Rhus  venenata,  Poison  sumach,  Dogwood. 

Sanguisorba  Canadensis,  Canadian  burnet. 

Geuin  strictum,  Avens. 

"      rivale,  Water,  or  purple  avens. 


L84 


LAND   DRAINAGE. 


Botanical  Name. 
Rosa  Carolina, 
Rhexia  Virginica, 
Lythrum  alatum, 
Nesaea  verticillata, 
Epilobium  coloratum, 
Ludwigia  palustris, 
Penthorum  sedoides, 
Saxifraga  Pennsylvania, 
Heracleum  lanatum, 
Archemora  rigida, 
Cicuta  maculata, 
"       bulbifera, 
Conium  maculatuin, 
Cornus  sericea, 
"       stolonifera, 
"       stricta, 

Cephalanthus  occidentalis, 
Solidago  Ohioensis, 
"          Riddellii, 
"          patula, 
"         lanceolata, 
Helianthus  giganteus, 
Coreopsis  trichosperma, 
Bidens  cernua, 

"        chrysanthemoides, 
Helenium  autumnale, 
Cacalia  tuberosa, 
Cirsium  muticum, 
Lobelia  cardinalis, 
"         syphilitica, 
"         Kalmii, 
Plantago  major, 
Lysimachia  ciliata, 
"  radicans, 

lanceolata, 
Chelone  glabra, 
Mimulus  ringens, 
"          alatus, 
Veronica  anagallis, 
"          Americana, 
"          scutellata, 
Gerardia  purpurea, 
Pedicularis  Canadensis, 

lanceolata, 
Dianthera  Americana, 


Common  Name, 
Swamp  rose. 
Deer  grass. 
Loosestrife. 

Willow  herb. 
Water  purslane. 
Ditch  stone  crop. 
Swamp  saxifrage. 
Cow  parsnip. 
Cow  bane. 
Water  hemlock. 
Hemlock. 
Poison  hemlock. 
Silky  cornel. 
Red  osier  dogwood. 
Stiff  cornel. 
Button  bush. 
Golden  rod. 


Sunflower. 
Tick  seed  sunflower. 
Burr  marigold. 
it 

Sneezeweed. 

Tuberous  Indian  plantain. 

Swamp  thistle. 

Cardinal  flower. 

Great  lobelia. 

Rib  grass. 
Loosestrife. 


Snakehead. 
Monkey  flower. 

Water  speedwell. 
Brooklime. 
Marsh  speedwell. 

Lousewort. 
Water  willow. 


WHAT   LANDS  NEED   DRAINING. 


185 


Botanical  Name. 
Lippia  lanceolata, 
Physostegia  Virginiana, 
Scutellaria  lateriflora, 
Myosotis  palustris, 
Asclepias  incarnata, 
Polygonum  amphibium, 

"  Pennsylvanicum, 

"  hydropiper, 

"  acre, 

"  hydropiperoides, 

Rumex  verticillatus, 

"        conglomerates, 
Quercus  aquatica, 
"        palustris, 
Symplocarpus  foetidus, 
Acorus  calamus, 
Typha  latifolia, 
Triglochin  palustre, 
Alisma  plantago, 
Sagittaria  variabilis, 
Platanthera  peramoena, 
Spiranthes  latifolia, 
Cypripedium  spectabile, 
Iris  Virginica, 
Sisyrinchium  Bermudiana, 
Scilla  Fraserii, 
Lilium  Cahadense, 
Melanthium  Virginicum. 
Veratrum  viride, 
Juncus  effusus, 
"         scirpoides. 
"        militaris. 
"        tenuis. 
Cyperus  diandrus, 
"         strigosus. 
Eleocharis  obtusa, 
"          palustris. 
"          tenuis. 
"          compressa. 
Scirpus  sylvaticus, 
"        lineatus. 
"        eriophorum, 
Eriophorum  polystachyon, 
Almost  all  Sedges. 
Leersia  oryzoides, 

17 


Common  Name. 
Fog  fruit. 
False  dragon  head. 
Skullcap. 
Forget-me-not. 

Knotweed. 


Swamp  dock. 

Green  dock. 

Swamp  oak. 

Water  oak. 

Skunk  cabbage. 

Sweet  flag,  Calamus. 

Cat-tail  flag. 

Arrow  grass. 

Water  plantain. 

Arrow-head. 

Great  purple  orchis. 

Ladies'  tresses. 

Ladies'  slipper. 

Blue  flag. 

Blue-eyed  grass. 

Squill,  White  hyacinth. 

Wild  yellow  lily. 

False  hellebore. 
Bog  rush. 


Galingale. 
Spike  rush. 

Club  rush. 

Wool  grass. 
Cotton  grass. 

White  grass. 


186 


LAND    DRAINAGE. 


Botanical  Name. 
Leersia  Virginica. 
Alopecurus  aristulatus, 
Cinna  arundinaeea, 
Calarnagrostis  Canadensis, 
Spartina  cynosuroides, 
Glyceria  elongata, 

"         nervata. 

"         fluitans. 
Phragmites  communis, 
Holcus  lanatus, 
Hierochloa  borealis, 
Phalaris  arundinacea, 
Milium  effusum. 
Sorghum  nutans, 


Common  Name. 

Wild  water-foxtail. 
Wood-reed  grass. 
Blue-joint  grass. 
Freshwater  cord  grass. 
Manna  grass. 


Reed. 

Meadow  soft  grass. 

Vanilla. 

Heed  canary  grass. 

Millet  grass. 

Indian  grass. 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 


ON  THE  ABSORBING  QUALITIES  OF  SOIL  AND  ANALY- 
SIS OP  DRAIN  WATER. 

IT  has  been  urged  in  some  very  intelligent  circles  that 
drainage  would,  in  course  of  time,  impoverish  the  soil 
drained,  by  the  drain  water  carrying  off  nutritive  sub- 
stances held  in  solution.  At  first  view  this  hypothesis, 
startling)  as  it  was,  appeared  rational,  to  say  the  least. 
Way,  Liebig,  and  other  eminent  and  celebrated  chemists, 
determined  to  ascertain  what  proportion,  as  well  as  what 
kinds  of  nutritive  elements  were  borne  away  by  drainage 
water,  when,  to  their  astonishment,  they  found  that  the 
soils  at  once  fixed,  and  held  all  the  elements  necessary  for 
the  growth  and  maturity  of  the  plant,  and  that  the  amount 
escaping  by  the  drains  was  in  an  infinitesimal  degree  only. 

Believing  that  the  views  and  experiments  of  these 
chemists  on  this  subject  are  eminently  proper  in  this  place, 
we  here  give  them  in  detail : 

In  1850,  J.  Thomas  Way  published  in  the  Journal  of 
the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England, l  an  essay  "  On 
the  Power  of  Soils  to  Absorb  Manure,"  detailing  a  series 
of  most  remarkable  experiments,  which  will  prove  of  great 
importance  in  modifying  the  theory,  and  in  confirming  or 
disproving  the  practice  of  many  agricultural  operations. 
These  experiments  prove  that  certain  manuring  ingre- 
dients, when  brought  (in  soluble  condition)  in  contact  with 
soil,  lose  their  soluble  form,  and  combine  in  a  peculiar 
manner  with  the  soil. 

l  Vol  XI,  page  313. 

(187) 


188  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

Way's  experiments  were  induced  by  observations  made 
by  H.  S.  Thompson  and  Huxtable,  who  had  found  that 
liquid  manure,  when  brought  in  contact  with  loamy  soil, 
loses  its  color  and  odor ;  and,  according  to  the  statement 
of  H.  S.  Thompson,  soils  have  the  faculty  of  separating 
ammonia  from  its  combinations  by  withdrawing  it  from 
water. 

Way  proved  that  the  soil  affects  caustic,  carbonate,  sul- 
phate, nitrate,  and  chlorate  of  ammonia  in  this  manner  ; 
the  ammonia  is  arrested,  while  the  acids  remain  in  the 
solution.  He  extended  his  experiments  to  -the  salts  of  pot- 
ash, natron,  lime  and  magnesia.  He  found,  moreover, 
that  if  a  solution  of  phosphate  of  natron  or  of  guano,  in 
diluted  sulphuric  acid  (containing  phosphoric  acid  and 
phosphate  of  lime),  is  filtered  through  soil,  the  phospho- 
ric acid  likewise  disappears  from  the  solution,  and  is  ar- 
rested by  the  soil.  He  finally  determined  the  quantities 
of  ammonia  and  potash,  absorbed  and  retained  in  this 
manner,  by  given  weights  of  various  soils. 

He  likewise  showed  that  when  putrid  urine,  water  from 
the  London  sewers,  and  flax  water,  are  filtered  through 
white  clay,  and  a  soil  rich  in  clay  (on  Pusey's  estate),  the 
putrid  urine  loses  its  odor  and  all  ammonia ;  and  that  the 
rest  lose  all  their  potash  and  phosphoric  acid. 

One  of  the  important  conclusions  for  practical  agri- 
culture deduced  by  Way  from  these  experiments,  was 
that  the  soluble  ingredients  of  manure — in  whatever  form 
and  dilution  they  are  conveyed  to  the  soil — are  retained 
by  the  soil  for  the  use  of  the  plants.  An  English  acre  of 
soil  (of  the  quality  he  used  for  his  experiments)  ten  inches 
in  depth,  weight  about  1,000  tuns,  would  absorb  three  tuns 
of  ammonia.  From  this  he  infers :  When  the  combina- 
tion has  once  taken  place,  there  appears  to  be  no  power 
in  water  to  distribute  this  manure  in  the  soil.  It  follows 


ABSORBING   QUALITIES    OF   SOIL.  189 

that  if  in  the  application  of  matiure  we  are  not  careful 
to  make  an  equal  distribution,  we  compel  the  roots  of  the 
plants  to  seek  their  food  at  a  distance. 

The  experiments  of  Way  were  mostly  made  in  clay 
soil — white  clay  and  pipe  clay ;  and  the  comparison  of 
their  absorbing  qualities  with  those  of  sand,  induced  him 
to  ascribe  the  absorbing  power  of  soil  to  the  clay  (silicate 
of  alumina).  He  afterward  endeavored  to  confirm  this 
view,  by  the  discovery  of  the  effects  of  silicate  of  clay  and 
lime,  artificially  produced.  This  latter  view,  according 
to  which  the  absorbing  qualities  of  soil  were  to  be  as- 
cribed to  a  cause  purely  chemical,  can  not  claim  general 
assent.  The  pure  hydrate  of  clay  soil  possesses  the  power 
of  absorbing  potash  and  ammonia  in  a  higher  degree  than 
the  soils.  But  the  facts  discovered  by  him  are  entirely 
independent  of  his  explanation  of  them.  And  if  it  can 
be  proved,  that  the  absorbing  power  of  the  soil  belongs 
to  the  ground,  or  arable  soil  in  general — whatever  be  its 
composition— these  facts  will  establish  a  new  view  on  the 
nutrition  of  plants,  and  on  the  manner  in  which  they  re- 
ceive their  non-gaseous  substances  from  the  soil. 

Mr.  Way's  observations  and  conclusions  refer  to  cer- 
tain soluble  salts  and  ingredients  of  manure  only.  But 
as  the  manure  applied  to  the  fields  in  practical  agriculture, 
does  not  cause  the  fertility  of  soil,  but  merely  contributes 
to  its  preservation,  it  is  obvious  that  the  nutrition  of 
plants,  existing  in  the  soil  and  identical  with  the  ingredients 
of  manure,  must  operate  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  lat- 
ter. And  if  the  soluble  manurial  elements  applied  to  the 
field  are  separated  from  the  solution,  as  soon  as  they 
come  in  contact  with  the  soil,  and  form  an  insoluble  com- 
bination with  the  soil,  we  must  infer  that  the  nutritious  sub- 
stances identical  with  those  elements  and  existing  in  the 
soil,  can  likewise  not  be  conveyed  to  the  plants  in  a  solu- 


190  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

tion,  but  that  the  roots  of  plants  appropriate  these  sub 
stances  in  a  manner  as  yet  not  ascertained. 

The  roots  of  plants  receive — according  to  the  views  of 
vegetable  physiologists  and  chemists — the  elements  for 
their  nutrition  from  a  solution.  Rain  water,  of  itself,  or 
aided  by  carbonic  acid,  dissolves  silicic  acid,  potash,  lime, 
magnesia,  phosphate  of  lime,  phosphate  of  magnesia,  and 
oxyd  of  iron.  This  solution  spreads  in  the  ground,  and  is 
absorbed  by  the  roots  of  the  plants.  The  plant  acts  like  a 
sponge,  one  half  of  which  is  in  the  air  and  the  other  in 
the  soil.  The  water  contained  in  it  evaporates  through 
the  agency  of  leaves,  while  the  roots  re-absorb  the  water 
thus  expelled.  The  quantity  of  mineral  elements  con- 
veyed to  the  roots  depends  upon  the  quantity  of  fluid  ab- 
sorbed and  evaporated,  and  the  substances  contained  in 
solution  in  it. 

This  view  evidently  must  be  abandoned,  if  it  can  be 
proved  that  rain  water  of  itself,  or  combined  with  carbonic 
acid,  does  not  dissolve  the  mineral  elements  serving  for 
the  nutrition  of  plants  in  so  perceptible  a  quantity,  that 
a  certain  proportion  of  vegetation  can  be  ascribed  to  the 
quantity  conveyed  in  such  a  solution.  Their  absorption 
must,  in  this  case,  be  ascribed  to  an  active  cause  co-ope- 
rating in  the  roots  of  the  plants,  imparting  to  the  water 
surrounding  the  root  the  power  of  dissolving  certain 
mineral  elements,  which  by  itself  it  does  not  dissolve. 
We  must  furthermore  infer,  that  the  quantity  of  absorbed 
mineral  elements  must  be  in  proportion  to  the  root-sur- 
face of  the  plants,  and  the  aggregate  of  efficient  mineral 
elements  contained  in  those  parts  of  the  earth  which  are 
in  contact  with  the  root-surface. 

In  order  to  obtain  more  definite  results  regarding  these 
questions,  experiments  have  been  made1  to  determine  the 
relations  of  salts  of  potash,  silicate  of  potash,  and  solu- 

'By  Prof.  Leibig. 


ABSORBING   QUALITIES   OF   SOIL.  191 

tions  of  earthy  phosphates,  to  a  large  number  of  earths 
of  various  regions  and  different  composition,  among  which 
there  were  clayey  soils  from  Hungary,  six  limy  soils  from 
Havana,  limy  loam  soil  from  Weihenstephan  and  Bogenhau- 
sen,  near  Munich,  three  varieties  of  lime  soil  from  the  neigh- 
berhood  of  Munich  of  Schleissheim.  Particular  care  had 
been  taken  to  select  such  soils  as  were  influenced  by  salts 
of  ammonia,  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  those  which 
Way  used  in  his  experiments. 

A  syphon  having  the  capacity  of  300  cubic  centimeters 
of  water,  was  filled  with  this  earth,  and  a  double  volume 
of  the  solution  of  salts  of  potash  was  filtered  through. 
The  contents  of  the  solution  in  the  salts  of  potash  were 
known,  those  of  the  filtrate  were  quantitatively  deter- 
mined. -sr%- 

Experiments  with  Sulphate  of  Potash. — The  solution 
contained  in  each  cubic  centimetre :  1  mgrm.  of  salt. 
260  centimetres  of  the  liquid  were  filtered  through  loam 
soil  from  Bogenhausen,  evaporated  to  dryness,  and  treated 
with  choride  of  platinum,  they  yielded :  0*0325  of  chlo- 
ride of  platinum  and  potassium,  which  corresponds  to  6'2 
mgrms.  of  potash;  518  mgrms.  of  potash  had  conse- 
quently been  absorbed  from  1000  CC.  [cubic  centimeters] 
of  the  solution,  or  541  mgrms.  of  potash. 

Soil  from  Hungary  (clay  soil)  treated  with  the  same 
solution,  yielded  a  filtrate,  420  of  which  contained  4*6 
mgrms.  of  potash;  535-4  mgrms.  of  potash  had  conse- 
quently been  absorbed  from  1000  CC.  of  the  solution. 

Garden  mold  (rich  in  lime)  yielded  a  filtrate,  1000  CC. 
of  which  retained  but  16  mgrms.  of  solved  potash. 

It  scarcely  needs  to  be  mentioned  that  when  filtrates 
still  containing  perceptible  quantities  of  potash  were  again 
brought  in  contact  with  earth,  they  lost  it  all. 

The  same  quantity  of  earth  absorbed  potash  from  a  di- 


192  LAND   DBAINAGE. 

luted  solution  of  nitrate  and  choride  of  potash  to  such  an 
extent  that  the  quantity  remaining  in  the  liquid  after  fil- 
tration could  not  be  quantitatively  determined. 

The  experiments  with  chloride  of  potash  proved  also 
that  the  soil's  power  of  absorbing  was  limited  to  potash, 
excluding  the  chloride. 

Soils  are  not  indifferent  to  salts  of  natron ;  but  their 
power  of  absorbing  natron  from  its  combinations  in  solu- 
tion is  much  less  when  compared  with  the  power  with 
which  they  retain  potash. 

300  CO.  of  Bogenhausen  lime  soil  were  treated  in  the 
manner  described,  with  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  natron 
(2000  mgrms.  in  one  litre  of  water),  and  the  220  CO.  of 
the  filtrate,  yielded  204  mgrms.  of  nitrate  of  natron;  the 
earth  had  consequently  retained  but  54  per  cent,  of  the  na- 
tron in  solution.  The  same  quantity  of  the  same  earth  was 
treated  with  an  equally  strong  solution  of  nitrate  of  pot- 
ash (2  grms.  per  litre)  and  left  no  definable  quantity  of 
potash  in  220  CO.  of  the  filtrate. 

A  solution  of  sulphate  of  natron  (2  grms.  per  litre)  fil- 
tered through  the  same  soil  retained,  in  250  CO.  of  filtrate, 
237  mgrms.  of  sulphate  of  natron. 

The  effect  of  common  salt  upon  soil  is  like  that  of  chlo- 
ride of  potash ;  the  entire  amount  of  chloride  in  the  liquid 
is  found  again  in  the  filtrate,  a  certain  quantity  of  the  base 
of  natron  is  retained,  and  we  find  in  its  stead  in  the  fil- 
trate a  corresponding  quantity  of  lime  and  magnesia. 

Loamy  soil,  yielding  only  a  trace  of  lime  to  pure  water, 
was  brought  in  contact  with  a  solution  of  common  salt, 
containing  three  grms.  of  salt  in  one  litre ;  its  filtrate 
showed  a  very  considerable  amount  of  lime  and  a  total 
absence  of  sulphuric  acid. 

Specimens  of  soil  were  finally  treated  with  a  mixture 
of  liquid  manure  and  water,  containing,  beside,  carbonate 


ABSORBING   QUALITIES   OF   SOIL.  193 

of  ammonia,  salts  of  potash  and  natron.  The  amount 
of  the  last  two  had  previously  been  fixed  by  the  analysis 
of  liquid  manure :  it  contained  in  125  CO.  86*7  milli- 
grams of  potash  and  16*8  mgrms.  of  natron.  The  liquid 
manure  was  filtered  through  300  CO.  of  earth,  and  125 
CC.  were  employed  for  a  new  analysis.  The  potash  was, 
in  this  filtrate,  diminished  to  5'6  mgrms;  of  the  16*8  mgrms. 
of  natron,  5  only  had  been  absorbed.  The  carbonate  of  am- 
monia of  the  liquid  manure  had  been  completely  arrested 
by  the  earth,  so  that  it  could  not  be  traced  in  the  filtrate. 

These,  and  a  long  series  of  similar  experiments  with 
most  various  soils,  prove  that  the  relation  of  soil  to  salts 
of  potash  (discovered  by  Way)  is  altogether  a  general 
quality  of  arable  soil.  The  inferences  with  regard  to  the 
soluble  ingredients  of  manure  are  thus  completely  con- 
firmed. The  facts  ascertained  by  Way  establish,  there- 
fore, the  law,  that  the  plants  do  not  absorb  the  manurial 
substances  applied  to  fields  in  a  soluble  state  directly,  and 
in  the  form  in  which  they  are  contained  in  manure,  but 
that  they  previously  combine  with  certain  ingredients  of 
the  soil,  whereby  they  lose  their  solubility  in  the  water. 

Meadow  and  wild  plants  receive  manure.  Although  it 
seems  probable  that  they,  too,  do  not  receive  their  incom- 
bustible substances  from  a  solution  of  the  same,  but  that 
their  roots  must,  like  those  of  the  cultivated  plants,  absorb 
their  nutritious  elements  directly  from  the  soil.  The  ex- 
periments of  Way,  with  respect  to  the  manner  of  nutrition 
of  plants,  do  not  warrant  a  general  application  of  his  in- 
ferences. As  to  water  plants  floating  on  the  water's  sur- 
face, the  roots  of  which  do  not  reach  the  ground,  their 
mineral  ingredients  must  necessarily  have  been  conveyed 
in  a  solution. 

J.  v.  Liebig  has  made  some  experiments  respecting 
these  questions,  and  from  them  he  is  led  to  believe  that 
18 


194  J^AND  DRAINAGE. 

the  manner  in  which  the  land  and  water  plants  receive 
their  nutritive  elements  may  be  demonstrated. 

The  uncultivated  plants  receive  the  alkalies  of  their 
ashes  from  the  silicates,  and  the  phosphoric  acid  from  phos- 
phate of  lime,  or  phosphate  of  magnesia. 

The  relation  of  silicates  of  alkalies  and  of  a  solution 
of  the  above-named  phosphates  of  alkalies  in  carburetted 
water  to  the  different  soils  was  examined,  and  it  was  found 
that  silicate  of  potash  operates  precisely  like  all  salts  of 
potash.  The  determination  of  the  quantity  of  potash  ab- 
sorbed by  the  soils  is,  by  the  use  of  this  salt,  far  easier 
and  less  laborious  than  with  the  other  salts  of  potash,  since 
it  has  a  strong  alkaline  reaction,  and  the  decrease  of  pot- 
ash in  its  solution  can  safely  be  observed  with  a  good  re- 
agent (paper). 

If  a  diluted  solution  of  silicate  of  potash  be  brought 
in  contact  with  soil,  it  instantly  loses  its  alkaline  reaction. 
The  quantity  of  alkali  absorbed  by  a  given  weight  or  vol- 
ume of  earth  may  thus  be  readily  ascertained.  The  soils 
for  these  experiments  were  measured  in  uniform  powder 
by  means  of  a  vessel  divided  into  cubic  centrimetres  and 
brought  into  a  glass  bottle ;  portions  of  the  solution  of 
silicate  of  alkali  were  then  added,  and  they  were  shaken 
till  the  fluid  manifested  a  feeble  alkaline  reaction. 

The  solution  of  the  silicate  contained,  according  to  a 
previous  analysis,  in  1000  CO.  1-166  grains  of  potash 
free  from,  water,  and  2'78  of  silicic  acid. 

SOILS   FROM   THE   NEIGHBORHOOD   OF   MUNICH. 

I.  400  CO.  of  garden  mold  (containing  31-8  per  cent,  of 

arbonate  of  lime)  neutralized  the  alkaline  reaction  of  810 

CO.  of   the  above-named  solution  of  silicate  of  potash  ; 

1000  CC.  of  earth  absorbed  consequently  2'344  grms.  of 

potash. 


ABSORBING   QUALITIES   OF   SOIL.  195 

II.  1000  CO.   of  the  same  earth  mixed  with  another 
solution  of  silicate  of  potash,  containing  1/183  of  potash 
in  1000  CO.,  absorbed  the  potash  of   1940  CC.  of   this 
solution=2-294  grms.  of  potash. 

III.  1000  CC.  of  soil  (loam)  absorbed  the  potash  from 
2200  CC.  of  the  same  solution^' 601  grms.  of  potash. 

IV.  1000  CC.  of  soil  (loam)  absorbed  the  potash  from 
2-000  CC.  of  the  same  solution=:2-366  grms..  of  potash. 

V.  1000  CC.  of  loam  (3-77  per  c.  of  lime)  absorbed  the 
potash  from  1906  CC.  of  solution=2-206  grms.  of  potash. 

CLAY   SOIL   FROM   HUNGARY. 

This  soil  is  of  a  brownish  gray  color,  and  possesses  a 
quality  rarely  noticed  in  other  soils  in  Germany.  This 
earth,  with  water,  forms  a  plastic  mass  ;  when  rubbed  be- 
tween the  fingers  it  is  imperceptibly  fine ;  when  decanted 
off,  no  sand  remains,  at  least  only  a  few  grains,  which  are 
partly  dissolved,  effervescing  with  acids.  The  kneaded 
mass  does  not,  when  dried,  fall  to  pieces,  and  yields,  when 
burnt,  a  pale  ochry-yellow,  inwardly  black,  porous  mass, 
melting  in  stronger  fire.  There  were  three  specimens  of 
earth : 

I.  Cucuritza  Batrin.  IE.  Alba  dolina ;  and  III.  Funt- 
mular.  1000  CC.  of  these  earths  weighed,  on  an  aver- 
age, 1232  grammes.  They  stood  in  the  following  rela- 
tions to  a  solution  of  silicate  of  potash,  1-183  mgrms.  of 
potash  in  1  litre  : 

1000  CC.  of  Hungarian  soil,  I.,  absorbed  the  potash 
of  2855  CC.  of  solution=3-377  grms.  of  potash. 

1000  CC.  of  Hungarian  soil,  II.,  absorbed  the  potash 
of  2785  CC.  of  solution=3-294  grms.  of  potash. 

1000  CC.  of  Hungarian  soil,  III.,  absorbed  the  potash 
of  2685  CC.  of  solutionr=3-177  grms.  of  potash. 


196  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

HAVANA   SOILS. 

No.  I,  of  gray  color;  1000  CO.  of  earth  absorbed  tho 
potash  from  1526  CO.  of  solution=l*805  grms.  of  potash. 

No.  II,  of  yellow  color;  1000  CO.  of  earth  absorbed 
the  potash  from  1058  CO.  of  solution=l-251  grms.  of 
potash. 

No.  Ill,  of  red  color;  1000  CO.  of  earth  absorbed 
the  potash  from  1916  CO.  of  solution=2'266  grms.  of 
potash. 

No.  IV,  of  red  color;  1000  CO.  of  earth  absorbed 
the  potash  from  1769  CO.  of  solution=2'092  grms.  of 
potash. 

No.  Y,  of  gray  color;  1000  CO.  of  earth  absorbed 
the  potash  from  1210  CO.  of  solution=l'431  grms.  of 
potash. 

No.  VI,  of  gray  color;  1000  CO.  of  earth  absorbed 
the  potash  from  1150  CO.  of  solution=l-360  grms.  of 
potash. 

The  nature  and  quality  of  these  earths  prove  that  their 
power  of  absorbing  potash  does  not  belong  to  a  certain 
composition,  and  that  this  quality  is  chemical,  and  depends 
upon  a  certain  mechanical  quality  or  porosity. 

The  chemical  relations  are  obvious  in  the  relation  of 
the  salts  of  potash  to  soils,  and  of  their  conversion  into 
combinations  of  lime  and  magnesia.  The  soils  do  not  ab- 
sorb the  salts,  but  potash  or  the  base  ;  and  the  absorption 
of  alkali  would  not  be  likely  to  occur  if  the  acid  did  not 
come  in  contact  with  a  body  representing  potash  and  neu- 
tralizing the  acid. 

If  the  affinity  of  soil  for  potash  were  chemical,  the 
former  would  depend  upon  a  chemical  combination  exist- 
ing in  the  soil,  and  the  quantity  of  alkali  absorbed  would 
be  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  this  combination. 

All   the  earths   examined  were  mixtures  of  clay  and 


ABSORBING  QUALITIES   OF  SOILS.  197 

lime,  and  contained  a  certain  amount  of  sand  in  mechan- 
ical admixture. 

If  the  absorbing  quality  depended  upon  the  silicate  of 
clay,  it  would  increase  with  the  quantity  of  lime,  or  de- 
crease with  that  of  clay.  But  there  is,  in  this  respect, 
hardly  any  difference  in  the  earths  examined,  with  excep- 
tion of  the  Hungarian,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  following 
synopsis : 

1000  cubic  centrimetres  of  soil  from 

Bogenhausen,     Garden  mold,  Havana,  No.  III. 

Contain     -    -   6-6  per  cent.     32-2  per  cent.  57  per  cent,  of  carbon,  of  lime. 

Absorbed    -     2366  mgrms.       2344  mgrms.  2266  mgrms.  of  potash. 

These  experiments  exhibit  no  special  relation  of  the 
absorbing  power  to  the  clayey  contents  of  these  earths. 
The  Bogenhausen  loam  is  so  rich  in  clay  that  it  is  used 
for  manufacturing  tiles.  The  Havana  earth,  No.  HI,  is  a 
dry,  poor  lime  soil,  of  a  red  color,  due  to  its  oxyd  of  iron. 
Both  differ  exceedingly  in  their  composition,  and  have, 
notwithstanding,  the  same  power  of  absorbing  potash. 

As  to  carbonate  of  lime,  we  know  that  a  piece  of  chalk 
or  a  porous  limestone,  placed  in  a  diluted  solution  of  pot- 
ash "water-glass"  becomes  a  stony  mass,  almost  bearing 
a  polish,  and  but  slightly  porous;  that  carbonate  of 
lime — as  Fuchs  discovered — is  not  decomposed,  but  com- 
bines with  a  certain  quantity  of  the  silicate  of  potash  con- 
tained in  the  fluid.  If  we  pulverize  chalk  very  finely, 
wash  it,  and  bring  it  in  contact  with  silicate  of  potash,  this 
latter  substance  is  very  sparingly  absorbed  by  the  fluid. 
10  CC.  of  the  solution  of  silicate  of  potash,  containing 
11-8  mgrms.  of  alkali,  were  mixed  with  chalk,  and  its  alka- 
line reaction  was  not  perceptible  until  115  CC.  of  pow- 
dered chalk  had  been  added;  the  reaction  was  caused  by 
the  addition  of  water  and  the  subsequent  dilution  of  the 
alkaline  solution,  rather  than  by  the  absorption  of  alkali. 


198  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

This  filtered  liquid  was  concentrated  by  evaporation,  and 
reassumed  the  alkaline  reaction  that  had  become  imper- 
ceptible, in  consequence  of  dilution. 

Pure  hydrate  of  clay  soil  was  found  to  separate  the 
greatest  amount  of  silicate  of  potash  from  its  solutions, 
so  that  the  latter  lose  their  alkaline  reaction. 

In  one  experiment,  a  quantity  of  hydrate  of  clay  soil, 
corresponding=2'696  grms.  of  burnt  clay  soil,  absorbed 
silicate  of  potash  from  150  CO.  of  a  solution,  containing 
in  1000  CO.  1-185  grms.  of  potash  and  3-000  grms.  of 
silicic  acid.  If  we  suppose  that  one  kilogramme  of  clay 
soil  occupies,  as  a  dry  hydrate,  the  space  of  one  cubic  de- 
cimetre, so  that  it  is  as  heavy  as  one  litre  of  soil,  one  litre 
of  this  hydrate  of  clay  soil  would  have  absorbed  the  pot- 
ash and  silicic  acid  from  4600  CO.  of  this  solution,  i.  e., 
26  grms.  of  potash.  This  is  about  seven  times  as  much 
as  the  Hungarian  earth  No.  I  may  absorb  from  the  same 
solution.  We  must,  therefore,  presume  that  hydrate  of 
clay,  in  admixture  with  silicates  of  clay,  partakes  also  of 
the  soil's  power  of  absorbing  silicate  of  alkali.  We  can 
readily  perceive  that  this  quality  is  very  complicated. 

The  soil  is  not  influenced  by  silicic  acid  combined  in  so- 
lution with  alkali  in  the  same  manner  as  by  an  alkali  alone. 

A  solution  of  the  silicate  of  potash,  filtered  through 
forest  soil,  yielded  a  brown-colored  filtrate  of  a  feeble  acid 
reaction,  in  which  the  potash  and  silicic  acid  were  fixed. 

Garden  mold,  loam  soil  and  Hungarian  earth  were 
treated  in  the  same  manner,  and  250  to  500  CC.  of  the 
filtrate  (which  did  not  react)  were  employed  to  determine 
the  silicic  acid  and  potash  contained  in  it.  The  following 
are  the  results  obtained : 

1000  CC.  of  a  solution  of  potash,  "water-glass"  filtered 
through  forest  soil,  retained  in  solution  215  mgrms.  of 
potash  and  2765  mgrms.  of  silicic  acid. 


ABSORBING  QUALITIES  OF   SOILS.  199 

1000  CC.  of  the  same  solution,  filtered  through  garden 
mold,  retained  in  solution  111  mgrms.  of  potash  and  1699 
mgrms.  of  silicic  acid. 

1000  CC.  of  the  same  solution,  filtered  through  loam 
soil  (Bogenhausen),  retained  in  solution  18  mgrms.  of  pot- 
ash and  773  mgrms.  of  silicic  acid. 

1000  CC.  of  the  same  solution,  filtered  through  garden 
mold,  retained  in  solution  18  mgrms.  of  potash  and  353 
mgrms.  of  silicic  acid. 

1000  CC.  of  the  same  solution,  filtered  through  Hun- 
garian soil  II,  retained  in  solution  14  mgrms.  of  potash 
and  136  mgrms.  of  silicic  acid. 

The  applied  ("water-glass")  solution  contained  per 
litre,  1166  mgrms.  of  potash  and  2780  mgrms.  of  silicic 
acid  ;  there  remained,  after  filtering  through  forest  earth, 
215  mgrms.  of  potash  and  2965  mgrms.  of  silicic  acid; 
the  forest  earth  had  consequently  absorbed  957  mgrms. 
of  potash  and  15  mgrms.  of  silicic  acid. 

The  garden  mold  I  absorbed  in  a  similar  manner  from 
the  fluid,  1055  mgrms.  of  potash  and  1081  mgrms.  of 
silicic  acid. 

Bogenhausen  loam  soil  absorbed  in  a  similar  manner 
from  the  fluid,  1148  mgrms.  of  potash  and  2007  mgrms. 
of  silicic  acid. 

Garden  soil  II  absorbed  in  a  similar  manner  from  the 
fluid  (amount  potash  not  defined),  2425  mgrms.  of  silicic 
acid. 

Hungarian  soil  II  absorbed  in  a  similar  manner  from 
the  fluid,  1142  mgrms.  of  potash  and  2611  mgrms.  of 
silicic  acid. 

The  forest  earth  and  Hungarian  soil  represent,  in  these 
experiments,  the  utmost  limits  of  affinity  for  absorbing 
silicic  acid.  The  former  had  absorbed,  from  the  solution 
of  the  silicate  of  potash,  three  fourths  of  the  potash  and 


200  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

almost  no  silicic  acid;  while  the  latter  had  pretty 
much  absorbed  all  the  potash  and  silicic  acid  in  so- 
lution. 

The  liquids  filtered  through  forest,  garden  and  loam 
soil  were  so  rich  in  silicic  acid  that  they  gelatinized,  when 
evaporated,  like  the  solution  of  a  silicate  in  an  acid.  The 
forest  soil,  having  absorbed  the  smallest  quantity  of  silicic 
acid,  yielded,  in  the  beginning,  a  light  brown-colored  fil- 
trate of  feeble  acid  reaction.  The  filtrates  of  garden  soil 
I  and  of  the  loam  soil  were  likewise  dark  colored,  and  the 
slight  power  of  absorbing  silicic  acid  may  be  explained  as 
having  its  cause  in  the  organic  matter  or  the  decaying 
vegetable  substances,  as  they  contained  these  earths  in 
larger  quantities  than  the  others,  which  had  absorbed  more 
silicic  acid  from  the  same  solution. 

The  following  experiments  will,  perhaps,  confirm  this 
conclusion.  The  earths  examined  were  dried  at  a  high 
temperature,  and  exposed  to  a  red  heat  in  the  air.  The 
forest  soil  lost  in  combustible  substances  30*9  per  cent.; 
the  garden  soil  1, 18  per  cent.;  the  loam  soil,  8'7;  the  Hun- 
garian soil,  9*84;  the  Havana  soil  III  contained  5*5  per  cent, 
only,  the  least  quantity  of  organic  substances. 

Equally  large  volumes  of  the  last  two  earths  were  mixed 
with  the  same  solution  ("water-glass")  until  the  fluids 
showed  a  very  feeble  but  perfectly  uniform  alkaline  reac- 
tion ;  they  were  then  filtered,  and  the  silicic  acid  of  the 
fluid  was  determined.  In  these  experiments,  the  earths 
came  in  contact  with  a  very  insignificant  excess  of  the 
solution  of  silicic  potash. 

1000  CO.  of  the  filtrate  of  the  Hungarian  soil  retained 
in  solution  1010  mgrms.  of  silicic  acid ;  the  filtrate  of  the 
Havana  soil  contained  in  the  same  volume  580  mgrms.  of 
silicic  acid.  The  organic  substances  existing  in  the  soil — 
humus — possess  the  character  of  an  acid,  or  the  quality 


ABSORBING   QUALITIES   OF   SOILS.  201 

of  combining  with  alkaline  bases,  in  a  higher  degree  than 
the  silicic  acid,  and  seem  to  a  certain  extent  to  neutralize 
this  power  of  entering  into  insoluble  combinations  with 
the  silicates  of  lime  and  clay  soil.  The  chemical  nature 
of  the  soil  has,  however,  a  great  influence  in  this  partic- 
ular. 

Thus,  the  two  garden  soils  stood  in  varying  relations 
to  the  silicic  acid  of  the  silicate  of  potash,  although  they 
contained  very  near  the  same  amount  of  combustible  sub- 
stances. A  certain  quantity  of  earth  absorbs  1081  mgrms. 
of  a  solution  of  silicate  of  potash,  while  another  equally 
large  quantity  of  soil  had  absorbed  2425  mgrms.  of  silicic 
acid ;  the  latter  soil  contained  a  considerable  amount  of 
carbonate  of  lime,  while  the  former  contained  a  large  por- 
tion of  silicious  sand.  The  filtrates  of  both  were  perfectly 
neutral,  but  differed  widely  in  their  coloring.  The  perco- 
lated liquid  (of  the  solution  of  silicate  of  potash)  of  the 
garden  soil,  rich  in  lime,  was  very  slightly  brown ;  that  of 
the  soil  rich  in  sand  and  destitute  of  lime  was  of  a  deep 
brown  color.  0 

The  forest  soil,  which  absorbed  scarcely  any  silicic  acid, 
yielded,  when  calcined,  a  residuum  which  did  not  effervesce 
with  acids,  and  consisted  for.  the  greater  part  of  silicious 
sand.  This  soil  was  mixed  with  about  10  per  cent,  of  washed 
chalk,  dried,  and  afterward  a  solution  of  silicate  of  potash 
was  filtered  through  it.  The  filtrate  was  neutral  and 
much  less  colored  than  it  was  before  (without  the  chalk). 
95  CC.  of  filtrate  yielded  199  mgrms.  of  silicic  acid;  100 
CO.  21  mgrms.  of  potash;  1000  CC.  gave,  therefore,  2090 
mgrms.  of  silicic  acid  and  210  mgrms.  of  potash.  The 
solution  (of  "  water-glass ")  contained,  before  its  contact 
with  the  soil,  per  litre:  1277  mgrms.  of  potash  and  3230 
mgrms.  of  silicic  acid.  The  same  earth  which  previously 
absorbed  15  mgrms.  only  of  silicic  acid,  and  951  mgrms. 


202  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

of  potash — with  a  large  amount  of  organic  substances  and 
a  lack  of  alkaline  bases — from  one  litre  of  solution  (of 
"water-glass"),  containing  1167  mgrms.  of  potash  and  2765 
mgrms.  of  silicic  acid — the  same  earth  now  absorbed,  from 
the  same  volume  of  solution,  1140  mgrms.  of  silicic  acid 
and  1060  mgrms.  of  potash.  Washed  chalk  absorbs  by 
itself,  under  these  circumstances,  no  definable  quantity  of 
alkali  and  silicic  acid. 

The  same  forest  soil  was  finally  incorporated  with  lime 
water  into  a  paste,  to  which  a  sufficient  quantity  of  lime 
water  was  added  from  time  to  time,  until  it  exhibited  a 
feeble  alkaline  reaction ;  the  latter  was  neutralized  by  a 
supply  of  earth.  This  earth  had  thus  lost  its  acid  reac- 
tion without  the  presence  of  an  excess  of  lime ;  it  was 
subsequently  dried,  and  combined  with  a  solution  of  sili- 
cate of  potash.  The  filtrate  exhibited  a  feeble  alkaline 
reaction  of  lime ;  but  the  silicic  acid  had  decreased  from 
3230  mgrms.  per  litre  to  61  mgrms.,  and  the  potash  from 
1277  to  290  mgrms.,  which  had  remained  in  the  solution. 

Soils,  by  burning,  undergo  a  remarkable  modification  in 
their  power  of  absorbing  silicic  acid.  Loam  soil  (Bogen- 
hausen)  was  burnt  in  the  air  (in  order  to  destroy  the  or- 
ganic substance),  and  combined  with  the  solution  of  pot- 
ash (water-glass). 

No  diminution  of  alkaline  reaction  had  taken  place  in 
the  filtrate  ;  but  the  silicic  acid  had  been  completely  sep- 
arated from  the  solution.  20  CO.  of  the  filtrate  required 
24  CO.  of  a  solution  of  oxalic  acid  to  neutralize  it.  There 
existed  more  alkali  in  the  filtrate  than  in  the  liquid  em- 
ployed, and  a  close  investigation  proved  that  a  certain 
quantity  of  caustic  lime  had  been  dissolved. 

It  results  from  these  experiments  that  vegetable  remains 
in  the  soil  exert  an  influence  on  the  distribution  of  tho 
hydrate  of  silica  to  the  roots.  This  may,  perhaps,  explain 


ABSORBING   QUALITIES   OF   SOILS.  203 

the  influence  of  a  certain  amount  of  humus  in  the  soil — 
or  of  the  organic  remains  of  plants  with  widely-spread 
roots,  as  clover — upon  the  growth  of  the  subsequent 
plants ;  as  well  as  the  occurrence  of  plants  abounding  in 
silicic  acid  in  stagnant  waters  and  swamps,  upon  the  soil 
of  which  great  quantities  of  decaying  vegetable  matter 
are  accumulating. 

These  facts  warrant  the  conclusion  that  potash  is  afford- 
ed to  the  plants  in  one  relation  only,  or  that  they  separate 
it  from  one  combination  only. 

Chloride  of  potassium  and  sulphate  or  nitrate  of  potash 
do  not  operate  in  the  soil  in  the  form  in  which  they  are 
applied ;  but  the  base  separated  from  the  acid,  the  latter 
forming,  with  lime  and  magnesia,  salts  of  another  chemi- 
cal nature. 

The  plant  does  not  absorb  those  substances  in  conse- 
quence of  a  decomposing  process  in  its  organism  after 
their  reception.  The  soil  accomplishes  this  decomposition 
previous  to  absorption,  inasmuch  as  it  separates  the  potash 
from  the  acid  with  which  it  was  combined,  and  renders  it 
insoluble  in  water. 

Any  soil  possesses  a  certain  power  of  absorbing  potash ; 
this  power  can  be  represented  by  a  figure ;  and  it  is  not 
unlikely  that  the  quality  of  a  soil  may  be  determined  by 
this  illustration. 

Ammonia,  either  pure  or  in  the  form  of  salts,  acts  pre- 
cisely like  potash. 

A  manufacturer  on  the  Rhine,  being  desirous  of  ex- 
tracting oxide  of  copper  from  bituminous  marl-slate,  in 
which  it  existed  in  the  form  of  malachite  and  lapis  lazuli, 
hit  upon  the  idea  of  using  ammonia  for  this  purpose,  as 
it  had,  in  experiments  on  a  smaller  scale,  furnished  satis- 
factory results.  He  constructed,  at  considerable  expense, 
an  extracting  apparatus  on  a  large  scale,  consisting  of  two 


204  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

basins,  connected  with  each  other  by  a  very  wide  pipe. 
One  of  them  was  used  for  the  ammoniacal  liquid ;  the  pipe 
was  filled  with  bituminous  marl-slate ;  the  second  basin 
served  as  condenser.  Ammonia  and  water  vapor  were, 
according  to  this  arrangement,  to  be  driven  with  the  cop- 
per ore  through  the  pipe,  to  condense  there  and  to  dissolve 
the  oxide  of  copper ;  the  solution  was  to  flow  into  the 
second  basin.  The  pipe  was  afterward  to  be  filled  again 
with  copper  ore,  and  the  ammonia  of  the  satiated  solution 
was  to  be  driven  out  by  boiling,  and  to  serve  again  to  ex- 
tract another  portion  of  the  copper  ore.  As  the  apparatus 
was  hermetically  closed,  it  was  hoped  that  the  same  am- 
monia could  be  employed  without  loss  to  extract  large 
quantities  of  copper  ore.  One  of  the  two  basins  served 
alternately  as  condenser.  The  first  experiment  was  sat- 
isfactory, inasmuch  as  a  solution  of  oxide  of  copper  was 
collected  in  one  of  the  basins ;  but  when  the  ammonia  was 
driven  through  another  portion  of  bituminous  marl-slate, 
it  disappeared  in  an  unaccountable  manner  to  the  manu- 
facturer, so  that  the  proceeding  was  ultimately  abandoned. 
The  disappearance  of  ammonia  in  these  operations  had 
been  undoubtedly  caused  by  being  absorbed  by  the  bitu- 
minous marl-slate.  This  fact  may  be  regarded  as  a  proof 
of  the  powerful  affinity  between  them,  which  does  not 
appear  to  be  neutralized  even  by  the  influence  of  a  high 
temperature. 

The  power  of  certain  soils  to  absorb  ammonia  may  be 
sufficient,  perhaps,  to  separate — in  manufacturing  artificial 
manure — ammonia  from  very  diluted  ammoniacal  liquids, 
putrid  urine  and  other  liquids,  and  to  combine  them  in- 
stead of  an  acid. 

Urine  substances,  which  in  putrid  state  are  converted 
into  carbonate  ammonia,  are  not  separated  from  their  so- 
lutions by  the  soil.  A  solution  of  urine  (2000  mgrms.  per 


ABSORBING   QUALITIES   OP   SOILS.  205 

litre),  before  or  after  filtration  through  soil,  required  an 
equally  large  portion  of  nitrous  oxide  of  mercury  to  pre- 
cipitate it,  so  that  not  the  smallest  portion  of  it  seemed  to 
have  been  absorbed  by  the  soil. 

The  relation  of  a  solution  of  phosphate  of  lime,  phos- 
phate of  magnesia,  or  phosphate  of  ammoniated  magnesia 
to  soil,  is  similar  to  that  of  a  solution  of  salts  of  potash  or 
ammonia.  This  seems  to  prove  that  the  effect  produced 
by  soil  upon  these  solutions,  is  based  partially  upon  the 
formation  of  chemical  combinations. 

While,  in  the  salts  of  potash  and  ammonia  only  the 
alkali  is  extracted  and  retained  by  the  soil,  this  affinity 
extends  to  the  phosphates,  and  more  especially  to  phos- 
phoric acid. 

Liebig  mixed  lime  water  with  diluted  phosphoric  acid, 
so  that  neither  alkaline  nor  acid  reaction  could  be  per- 
ceived. The  precipitate  thus  produced  was  dissolved  in 
water  holding  carbonic  acid  in  excess.  Similar  solutions 
were  subsequently  made  (by  him)  of  phosphate  of  ammo- 
niated magnesia  in  carburetted  water. 

Measured  quantities  of  these  solutions  were  then  brought 
into  contact  with  different  soils  until  specimens  of  the  fil- 
tered liquids  gave  manifest  indications  of  the  presence  of 
phosphoric  acid  by  a  distinct  reaction  of  molybdate.  Thus, 
it  was  approximatively  ascertained  that  from  the  solution 
of  phosphate  of  lime  which  contained  610  mgrms.  of  phos- 
phate of  lime*  per  litre : 

1000  CC.  of  loam  soil  absorbed  1098  mgrms.  of  phosphate  of  lime. 

"      "     garden  soil          "        976     "  "  " 

"      "     soilofWeihenstephan976     "  "  " 

"      "        "     Schleissheim      976     "  " 

These  experiments  show  that  equal  volumes  of  these 

may  differ  very  little  in  thei*  affinity  for  phosphoric  acid. 
The  liquids  filtered  through  these  soils  were  almost  as 


206  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

limy  as  before,  and  appeared  to  have  lost  the  phosphoric 
acid  only  ;•  but  these  soils  contained  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  carbonate  of  lime.  While,  therefore,  the  phos- 
phate of  lime  contained  in  the  soil  was  separated  from  its 
solution  in  carburetted  water,  the  latter  retained  its  power 
of  dissolving  the  carbonate  of  lime.  An  acetate  was 
formed  from  the  carbonate  of  lime,  which  filtered  through 
without  being  decomposed. 

An  addition  of  chalk  decanted  off  will  not  cause  phos- 
phate of  lime  to  be  separated  from  a  solution  of  phosphate 
of  lime  in  carburetted  water;  the  fluid  retains  its  reaction 
on  phosphoric  acid. 

The  relation  of  soils  to  phosphate  of  ammonia  and  phos- 
phate of  magnesia  is  similar  to  that  of  phosphate  of  lime. 
They  exhibited  in  this  salt,  too,  very  slight  difference  in 
their  power  of  absorption. 

Equal  volumes  of  Bogenhausen  loam  soil,  garden  soil, 
and  soils  from  Weihenstephan  and  Schleissheim,  absorbed 
the  same  quantity  of  phosphate  of  magnesia-ammonia — 
that  is,  they  separated  this  salt  from  an  equal  volume  of 
its  solution  in  carburetted  water.  1000  CC.  of  these  soils 
required,  in  order  to  determine  the  presence  of  phosphoric 
acid  in  the  filtrate,  1800  CC.  of  a  solution  containing  1425 
mgrms.  of  salt  of  magnesia  per  litre.  The  phosphoric 
acid,  magnesia  and  ammonia  disappeared  simultaneously 
from  the  solution,  and  the  filtrate  received  an  abundant 
quantity  of 'lime  in  their  place.  The  filtrate  of  the  Schleiss- 
heim soil  contained  884  mgrms.  of  lime  in  1800  CO.;  the 
filtrate  of  the  garden  soil,  524  mgrms. ;  that  of  the  soil 
from  Weihenstephan,  402  mgrms.;  that  of  the  loam  soil 
from  Bogenhausen,  456  mgrms.  of  lime.  These  quantities 
of  lime  are  evidently  in  no  relation  to  each  other  or  to  the 
salt  previously  dissolved. 

The  salt  of  magnesia  is  not  precipitated  from  a  solution 


ABSORBING   QUALITIES   OF   SOILS.  207 

of  phosphate  of  magnesia  and  ammonia  in  carburetted 
water,  when  brought  in  contact  with  decanted  chalk  ;  lime 
does  not  supplant  magnesia.  From  the  relation  of  soil  to 
lime,  ammonia  and  phosphoric  acid,  we  may  infer  that  the 
majority  of  our  cultivated  plants  do  not  receive  their  most 
important  mineral  substances  from  a  solution.  For  if  the 
potash  and  ammonia  are  so  completely  separated  from  the 
acids  with  which  they  are  combined,  and  from  water,  that, 
after  the  percolation  of  their  solutions  through  strata  that 
are  not  deeper  than  tillable  soil,  chemical  analysis  can 
hardly  discover  any  traces  of  these  substances ;  it  can  not 
be  supposed  that  rain  water  in  itself,  or  with  the  aid  of  a 
small  per  cent,  of  carbonic  acid,  should  be  able  to  sepa- 
rate these  substances  from  the  soil,  and  to  form  a  solution 
capable  of  spreading  in  the  soil  without  losing  the  sub- 
stances held  in  solution.  The  same  remark  will  apply  to 
phosphoric  acid  and  the  phosphates  generally.  Water, 
holding  carbonic  acid  in  excess,  will  dissolve  this  salt 
wherever  it  meets  in  connection  with  phosphate  of  lime ; 
but  this  means  of  solution  can  only  cause  the  distribution 
of  phosphates  in  the  soil;  the  solution  can  not  leave  the 
place  where  it  was  formed  without  its  soluble  salt  being 
separated  again  from  soil  not  saturated  with  it. 

These  substances  exist  in  the  soil  in  a  condition  ready 
to  be  absorbed  by  means  of  the  roots ;  but  they  are  not 
soluble  in  themselves  by  rain  water,  and  can  not  be  sepa- 
rated by  means  of  this  solution  till  the  soil  holds  it  in 
excess. 

The  composition  of  our  common  river  water,  of  springs 
and  of  drain  water  upon  fields,  serves  to  support  these 
inferences. 

A  number  of  excellent  analyses  of  river  and  spring 
water  have  been  made  by  Graham,  Miller  and  Hofmann, 
from  which  it  appears  that  10,000  gallons,  or  500  tuns, 


208 


LAND   DRAINAGE. 


of  Thames  water,  taken  from  five  different  places  of  the 
Thames,  contained  : 


Pounds. 
Potash, 


Thames,  Dillon.        Ke\r.        Barnes.      Eedhouse,  Battersea.     Lambeth. 
7.3  4.71          3.55  10.  7.3 


The  following  spring  waters  contained  in  100,000  gal- 
lons =  1,000,000  pounds : 

Pounds.      Whitley.      Cutshtnere.    Vellwood.     Hindhcad.     Barford.     Cosfordhouse. 
Potash,          2.71  2.5  3.  0.7  1.8  6. 

Thomas  Way  found  in  drain  water,  i.  e.  in  rain  water 
filtrated  through  soil  in  a  natural  manner,  the  following 
ingredients  in  specimens  of  seven  different  fields : 


Grains  in  1  Gallon=70.000  Grains  of  Water. 

1. 

2. 

3, 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7, 

Potash, 

trace. 

trace. 

0.02 

0.05 

trace. 

0.22 

trace. 

Natron, 

1.00 

2.17 

2.26 

0.87 

1.42 

1.40 

3.20 

Lime,  - 

4.85 

7.19 

6.05 

2.26 

2.52 

5.82 

13.00 

Magnesia, 

0.68 

2.32 

2.48 

0.41 

0.21 

0.93 

2.50 

Oxyd  of   iron   and  clay 

soil, 

0.40 

0.05 

0.10 



1.30 

0.35 

0.50 

Silicic  acid, 

0.95 

0.45 

0.55 

1.20 

1.80 

0.65 

0.85 

Chlorine,    - 

6.70 

1.10 

1.27 

0.81 

1.26 

1.21 

2.62 

Sulphuric  acid, 

1.65 

5.15 

4.40 

1.71 

1.29 

3.12 

9.51 

Phosphoric  acid,    - 

trace. 

0.12 

trace. 

trace. 

0.08 

0.06 

0.12 

Ammonia, 

0.018 

0.018 

0.018  ;  0.012 

0.018 

0.018 

0.006 

Dr.  Krocker  obtained  quite  similar  results  in  his  analy- 
sis of  drain  water  at  Proskau  (Liebig  and  Kopp's 
Jahresb.  f.  1853,  742).  See  table  on  following  page. 

These  drain  waters  contain  all  the  substances  which 
rain  water  can  dissolve  in  the  soil,  and  their  composition 
gives  an  idea  of  the  quantity  which  a  plant  can  possibly 
obtain  from  this  solution  during  its  period  of  vegetation. 

We  will  suppose  that  twelve  millions  of  pounds  of  rain 
water  fall  upon  an  acre  of  ground  during  a  year,  and  that 
the  third  part  of  this  water  has  dissolved  or  holds  in 


ABSORBING   QUALITIES   OF   SOILS. 


209 


Drain  Water  (in  10,000  Parts.) 

a. 

b. 

c. 

d. 

e. 

f. 

Organic  substance, 

0.25 

0.24 

0.16 

0.06 

0.63 

0.56 

Carbonate  of  lime,     - 

0.84 

0.84 

1.27 

0.79 

0.71 

0.84 

Sulphate  of  lime, 
Nitrate  of  lime, 

2.08 
0.02 

2.10 

0.02 

1.14 
0.01 

0.17 
0.02 

0.77 
0.02 

0.72 
0.02 

Carbonate  of  magnesia,   - 

0.70 

0.69 

0.47 

0.27 

0.27 

0.16 

Carbonate  of  iron, 

0.04 

0.04 

0.04 

0.02 

0.02 

0.01 

Potash,      - 

0.02 

0.02 

0.02 

0.02 

0.04 

0.06 

Natron, 

0.11 

0.15 

0.13 

0.10 

0.05 

0.04 

Chloride  of  the  base  of  natron 

(natrium),   - 

0.08 

0.08 

0.07 

0.03 

0.01 

0.01 

Siliceous  earth,     - 

0.07 

0.07 

0.06 

0.05 

0.06 

0.05 

Total  of  solid  substances,  - 

4.21 

4.25 

3.37 

1.53 

2.58 

2.47 

excess  all  the  substances  like  the  above-mentioned  drain 
waters ;  that  these  four  millions  of  pounds  are  completely 
absorbed  in  the  months  of  June,  July,  August  and  Sep- 
tember, by  the  roots  of  the  potato  plants  cultivated  in 
this  soil,  and  are  evaporated  through  their  leaves.  All 
the  potato  plants  together  would,  in  this  case,  not  receive 
a  single  pound  of  this  solution  from  the  first  four  fields 
of  an  acre  each ;  they  would  receive  somewhat  more  than 
one  pound  from  the  two  other  fields  (Nos.  5  and  6),  and 
two  pounds  of  potash  from  the  seventh  (No.  7). 

Now  an  acre  of  ground  produces  an  average  crop  of 
potatoes  containing  408  pounds  of  ashes,  in  which  there 
are  200  pounds  of  potash. 

Supposing  the  fields — whose  drain  water  was  analyzed 
by  Dr.  Krocker — to  be  planted  with  beets,  and  that  four 
millions  of  pounds  of  rain  water,  holding  the  mineral 
substances  from  the  soil  in  excess,  had  been  conveyed  to 
the  plant  during  the  period  of  its  vegetation ;  this  rain 
water  could  have  conveyed  to  the  beet  plants  of  the  four 
fields  of  an  acre  each,  only  8  pounds,  of  another  sixteen 
pounds,  and  of  a  third  twenty-four  pounds  of  potash. 

The  average  crop  of  beets  on  an  acre  amounts,  together 
19 


210  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

with  the  leaves,  to  100,000  pounds,  containing  1,144 
pounds  of  ashes,  in  which  there  are  495  pounds  of  pot- 
ash! 

The  amount  of  ammonia  in  the  drain  water  analyzed 
by  Way  is  extraordinarily  small.  It  can  scarcely  be 
imagined  that  one  pound  of  ammonia  dissolved  in  three 
and  a  half  millions  of  pounds  of  water  should  exert  any 
perceptible  influence  upon  vegetation. 

Its  quantity  could  not  be  determined  in  a  gallon  (70,- 
000  grains),  of  Thames  water  taken  from  four  places  to  that 
amount,  and  there  are  in  the  water  taken  from  the  Thames 
near  Redhouse  Battersea,  3  parts  in  7  million  parts  of 
water.  The  Thames  would,  when  used  for  irrigation, 
undoubtedly  produce  a  considerable  increase  of  the  hay 
crop  on  many  meadows ;  but,  assuredly,  not  by  the  sup- 
ply of  ammonia,  of  which  this  water,  as  well  as  river  and 
brook  water  in  general,  is  so  destitute. 

The  amount  of  phosphoric  acid  in  the  drain,  river  and 
common  spring  water  is  —  nought.  Krocker  did  not  find 
any  in  drain  water ;  Way  found  only  traces  of  it  in  the 
water  from  three  drains. 

It  appears  from  the  relations  of  soil  that  the  plant  it- 
self must  be  active  in  absorbing  its  nourishment ;  its  ex- 
istence as  an  organic  being  does  not  entirely  depend  upon 
exterior  causes. 

If  the  land  plants  received  their  nourishment  from  a 
solution,  they  could  (according  to  time  and  proportion) 
absorb  only  as  much  as  evaporates  through  their  leaves ; 
they  could  only  absorb  what  the  solution  contains  and 
conveys.  It  is  certain  that  the  water  of  the  soil,  and  the 
evaporation  by  means  of  the  leaves  co-operate  in  the  pro- 
cess of  assimilation  as  necessary  agents  of  conveyance ; 
but  there  exists  in  the  soil  a  police  protecting  the  plant 
from  conveying  injurious  materials,  and  selecting  only 


ABSORBING  QUALITIES   OF   SOILS.  211 

what  the  latter  needs.  Whatever  the  soil  affords  can  be 
conveyed  into  its  organism  only  by  the  co-operation  of 
an  active  cause  in  the  root. 

The  greatest  number  of  cultivated  plants  are  compelled 
to  receive  their  mineral  nutrition  directly  from  the  soil, 
so  that  their  subsistence  is  endangered,  and  they  are 
stunted  and  die  away,  if  these  substances  are  conveyed  to 
them  in  a  solution. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  imagine  in  what  manner  the  plants 
bring  about  the  solution  of  mineral  ingredients.  As  a 
matter  of  course,  water  is  indispensable  for  its  transition. 

There  are  frequently  found  in  meadows  smooth  lime 
stones,  the  surface  of  which  is  covered  with  fine  net-like 
furrows ;  if  the  stone  is  taken  fresh  from  the  ground, 
each  deepened  line  or  furrow  is  seen  to  correspond  to 
some  fiber,  as  if  it  had  eaten  its  way  into  the  stone. 

The  difficulty  of  explanation  should  not  prevent  us 
from  investigating  the  facts  in  all  directions,  and  to  ascer- 
tain the  full  extent  of  their  influence.  There  are  always 
exceptions  enough. 

There  must,  of  course,  be  other  laws  for  the  absorption 
of  mineral  nutrition  by  those  water  plants  whose  roots  do 
not  reach  the  ground.  They  must,  like  the  sea  plants, 
receive  it  from  the  surrounding  medium ;  for  wherever  a 
plant  is  growing,  it  must  find  the  conditions  of  its  ex- 
istence. 

The  examinations  of  waterworts  (Lemna  trisulea), 
gave  rise  to  some  interesting  observations  in  this  respect. 
This  plant  grows  in  stagnant  waters,  ponds  and  bogs,  and 
floats  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  so  that  its  roots  are  in 
no  connection  whatever  with  the  ground. 

A  number  of  these  plants  were  collected  (by  Liebig), 
dried,  burnt,  and  the  ashes  analyzed.  Ten  to  fifteen 
litres  of  the  swamp  water  from  which  they  had  been 


212 


LAND   DRAINAGE. 


taken,  and  which  was  slightly  green,  were  filtered  and 
evaporated  to  dryness.  The  ashes  and  salt  residuum  of 
the  water  were  subsequently  subjected  to  an  analysis. 

The  large  quantity  of  mineral  ingredients  contained  in 
this  plant  was  really  surprising ;  still  more  so  was  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  the  elements  of  the  swamp  water, 
which  indicated,  by  analysis,  a  very  unexpected  composi- 
tion. We  will  put  their  analysis  in  juxtaposition,  in 
order  to  facilitate  comparison. 


Ashes  of  Waterworts. 

Salt  residuum. 

100  parts  of  dried  worts 

1  litre  contains  0.415 

yielded    16.6    parts  of 

grms  of  residuum 

ashes. 
There  are  in  100  parts 

(.slightly  burnt). 
There  are  in  100  parts 

of  the  burnt  ashes  : 

of  salt  : 

Lime, 

16.82 

35.00 

Magnesia, 

5.08 

12.264 

Common  salt, 

5.897 

10.10 

Chloride  of  potassium,  - 

1.45 



Potash, 

13.16 

3.97 

Natron,  - 



0.471 

Oxyd  of  iron,  with  traces  of  clay 

soil,     - 

7.36 

0.721 

Phosphoric  acid, 

8.730 

2.619 

Sulphuric  acid,-  - 

6.09 

8.271 

Silicic  acid,  - 

12.35 

3.24 

The  comparison  of  the  composition  of  water  with  the 
ingredients  of  ashes,  shows  that  all  the  mineral  substances 
of  the  former  are  to  be  found  in  the  plant,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  natron,  but  in  a  relation  very  much  changed.  The 
water  contains  45  per  cent,  of  lime  and  magnesia,  the  plant 
only  21  per  cent.;  the  water  contains  0'72  per  cent,  of  oxide 
of  iron,  the  plant  ten  times  more.  The  differences  between 
phosphoric  acid,  potash,  etc.,  are  not  less  remarkable.  A 
selection  had  obvfously  taken  place  :  the  plant  absorbed 
the  mineral  substances  in  the  proper  proportions  for  its 
growth,  and  by  no  means  in  the  relations  offered  by  the 
fluid. 


ABSORBING   QUALITIES   OF   SOILS.  213 

The  great  amount  of  mineral  elements  in  the  water  is 
very  remarkable ;  for  it  more  than  ten  times  exceeds  that 
in  drain  water,  and  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  times  that 
in  spring  water.  This  water  represents,  therefore,  in  its 
qualitative  analysis,  a  mineral  water  nowhere  else  to  be 
found. 

The  accession  of  the  amount  of  potash,  phosphoric  acid, 
sulphuric  acid,  silicic  acid  and  iron  can  be  explained  with- 
out difficulty.  There  are  a  vast  number  of  decaying  gen- 
erations of  plants  gradually  gathering  in  a  swamp,  the 
roots  of  which  have  taken  up  from  the  soil  a  great  quan- 
tity of  mineral  substances.  These  remains  of  plants  rot 
upon  the  bottom  of  the  swamp  ground,  i.  e.,  they  are 
burnt,  and  their  inorganic  elements  (or  their  elements  of 
ashes)  are  dissolved  under  the  co-operation  of  carbonic 
acid,  and,  perhaps,  of  organic  acids  in  the  water ;  they 
remain  dissolved  when  the  surrounding  mud  and  earth 
have  been  saturated  with  this  solution. 

It  has  been  ascertained  that  this  boggy  water,  when  fil- 
tered through  soil  taken  up  about  a  foot  from  the  margin 
of  the  water  basin,  does  not  lose  its  potash,  while  the  pot- 
ash of  any  other  soil  is  rapidly  separated  from  the  same 
water. 

Mud  of  ponds  (muck),  stagnant  waters  and  bogs,  is  often 
highly  valued  as  an  excellent  means  of  improving  the 
fields  and  increasing  their  fertility.  This  mud  operates 
evidently  like  soil. 

Water  percolating  through  a  soil  in  which  remains  of 
plants  are  accumulating  and  decaying,  dissolves,  of  course, 
many  mineral  substances  otherwise  not  found  in  those  soils. 

Verdeil  and  Risler's  investigations  as  to  the  quantity 
of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  separated  from  soil  by  tepid 
water,  are  unfortunately  not  conclusive.  They  extracted 
about  40  pounds  of  soil  by  means  of  tepid  distilled  water, 


'J  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

dried  the  clear  yellowish  extract,  burnt  it,  and  analysed 
the  remains.  They  found,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  not 
more  than  4,  in  others  6  to  8  and  9  per  cent,  of  phosphate 
of  lime.  Another  sediment  contained  11,  and  another  18 
per  cent,  of  phosphate  of  lime.  Chloride  of  potassium  and 
natron  amounted  together  from  3  to  9,  in  other  cases  to 
14  and  18  per  cent.  The  potash  and  natron  of  the  silicates 
together  in  no  case  reached  8  per  cent. 

This  investigation  did  not  determine  what  per  cent,  of 
ashes  was  left  by  the  extract,  and  how  much  of  these  sub- 
stances had  consequently  been  dissolved  by  the  water. 
And  this  was  evidently  the  principal  point  of  this  analysis. 
Had  the  watery  extract  of  soil  been  40  pounds  with /o  per 
cent,  of  ingredient  of  ashes,  the  mineral  substances  dis- 
solved from  the  40  pounds  of  earth  would  have  amounted 
to  20  grms.,  and  only  31  mgrms.  of  potash  and  40  mgrms. 
of  phosphate  of  lime  would,  according  to  the  analysis, 
have  been  separated  from  1000  grms.  of  soil.  If  the  water 
extracted  one  fortieth  of  one  per  cent,  of  these  substances, 
the  analysis  would,  of  course,  indicate  only  one  half  of 
the  quantity  of  potash  and  phosphate  of  lime  mentioned. 

DRAIN  WATER  CONTAINS — ACCORDING  TO  KROCKER'S  AND 

WAY'S  ANALYSIS — Toio-o  TO  TTTZToo  OF  DISSOLVED  MINERAL 
SUBSTANCES. 

The  relation  of  arable  soil  to  mineral  nutritive  sub- 
stances, which  exist  in  the  soil  or  are  conveyed  to  it  in 
manure,  result  in  some  conclusions  and  applications  of 
great  importance  to  practical  agriculture.  The  first  in- 
ference is :  that  the  quantity  of  ingredients  absorbed  in 
such  cultivated  plants  as  derive  their  nourishment  directly 
from  the  soil,  in  a  given  time  and  under  otherwise  equal 
conditions,  increases  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  the 
surface  of  roots,  and  that  the  fertility  of  soil  is  limited  by 
its  contents  of  nutritive  matter  in  each  part  of  the  inter- 


ABSORBING   QUALITIES   OF   SOILS.  215 

section  of  the  soil  downward  as  far  as  the  roots  reach. 
Liebig  observes,  in  his  Chemical  Letters: 

"  The  principal  effect  of  manure  on  our  fields  seems  to  consist,  in 
many  cases,  in  the  circumstance  that  the  upper  crust  of  the  fields  is 
more  abundantly  supplied  with  nourishment;  the  plants  shoot  out, 
therefore,  during  the  period  of  their  development,  a  tenfold,  perhaps 
a  hundred  and  a  thousand-fold  of  (root)  fibers ;  their  subsequent 
growth  is  in  proportion  to  this  number  of  organs,  by  which  they 
are  enabled  to  find  and  to  appropriate  the  less  copious  nutritious 
matter  of  deeper  strata.  This  may  be  the  reason  why  a  compara- 
tively small  quantity  of  ammonia,  alkalies  and  phosphates  increases 
the  fertility  to  such  a  high  degree." 


PART    II. 


CHAPTER    I. 


PRACTICAL    DRAINAGE. 

BEFORE  commencing  drainage  operations,  many  things 
are  to  be  taken  into  account,  the  most  important  of  which, 
in  all  probability,  to  the  farmer,  is,  what  kind  of  drains 
shall  be  made.  Where  lands  can  be  purchased  from  $5 
to  $15  per  acre,  it  would,  perhaps,  not  be  advisable  to 
underdrain  with  tile,  at  a  cost  from  $15  to  $25  or  $30 
per  acre. 

Drainage  is  designed  to  be  a  permanent  improvement ; 
as  much  so  as  building  a  house  or  barn.  In  all  farm  im- 
provements, the  farmer  in  the  West  is  proverbial  for 
"  cutting  the  coat  according  to  the  cloth."  The  western 
farmer  is  emphatically  a  practicable  man,  makes  use  of 
such  means  and  materials  as  he  can  command,  whether  it 
be  in  accordance  with  any  system  "  found  in  books,"  or 
not ;  and  to  this  fact,  perhaps,  as  much  as  to  anything 
else,  do  we  owe  the  amount  of  progress  made  in  agricul- 
ture in  the  state  of  Ohio,  and  in  the  West  generally.  If 
the  farmer  had  withheld  all  improvements,  until  they  could 
have  been  made  in  the  most  approved  manner,  we  possi- 
bly might  yet  be  in  the  full  enjoyment  of  log  cabins  and 
"  gar  skin  "  plows  throughout  the  state.  Instead  of  pur- 
suing that  policy,  however,  they  have  more  generally 
adapted  themselves  to  the  circumstances  by  which  they 
were  surrounded,  and  made  such  improvements  as  their 
20  (217) 


218  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

means  warranted,  and  it  is,  perhaps,  best  for  the  perma- 
nent progress  and  improvement  in  agriculture,  that  the 
same  policy  should  be  pursued  with  regard  to  under- 
draining. 

As  there  are  several  ways  of  underdraining,  and  differ- 
ent materials,  or  no  materials  at  all,  employed  in  keeping 
open  the  water-courses,  we  will  in  a  synoptical  manner 
enumerate  the  various  kinds  of  drains,  and  then  devote 
more  space  to  giving  the  details  of  each  kind  of  drain. 

MATERIALS    FOR   KEEPING   OPEN    THE   WATER-COURSES. 

1.  Wood. — This  material  has  long  been  used,  in  vari- 
ous forms,  for  making  drains.  In  swamps,  where  a  gene- 
ral outlet  is  secured  by  an  open  ditch,  the  side  drains 
leading  into  it,  as  well  as  drains  made  for  the  cure  of 
springy  places,  are  often  kept  open  by  the  brush  that  is 
usually  found  growing  in  such  places.  It  is  doubtless  bad 
economy  to  use  brush,  when  a  better  material  is  at  hand ; 
but  as  this  is  not  always  the  case,  it  will  be  found  that  a 
brush  drain  is  much  better  than  none.  Saplings,  or  round 
sticks,  or  split  wood,  are  frequently  used,  cut  into  equal 
lengths  of  three  or  four  feet,  and  put  in  the  drains  at  an 
angle,  in  the  same  manner  as  brush.  Or  a  different  plan 
may  be  adopted.  Straight  sticks,  of  any  length,  may  be 
used,  by  laying  one  on  each  side  of  the  drain,  leaving  the 
necessary  space  between;  then  a  third  pole,  or  piece,  is 
laid  upon  them,  so  as  to  cover  the  space,  and  prevent  the 
side  pieces  from  crowding  together.  Timber  is  sometimes 
split  into  thin,  wide  pieces,  resembling  staves,  or  the  shakes 
formerly  used  for  the  covering  log  houses,  and  a  water- 
course is  obtained  by  laying  one  edge  of  each  piece  on 
the  bottom,  on  one  side  of  the  drain,  and  letting  the  other 
edge  lean  against  the  other  side,  some  inches  from  the 
bottom.  In  this  case,  the  drains  must  be  dug  narrow,  or 


MATERIALS   FOR  DRAINS.  219 

the  stuff  split  sufficiently  wide,  so  that  it  can  not  be  forced 
down  flat  into  the  bottom  of  the  drain.  For  short  dis- 
tances, lumber  is  occasionally  used.  A  narrow  board 
forms  the  bottom  of  the  drain ;  a  piece  of  scantling  forms 
each  side,  and  another  board  makes  the  top.  This  is  an 
expensive  method ;  and  although  the  drain  is  good  while 
it  lasts,  it  is  not  especially  durable.  The  choice  of  these 
various  forms  of  wood  drains  must  depend  on  the  kind 
most  readily  obtained. 

Turf  Drains. — Almost  everybody,  perhaps,  has  heard 
of  turf  drains,  and,  therefore,  the  question  may  naturally 
arise,  if  turf  drains  will  answer,  why  incur  the  expense  of 
tiles?  Before  tiles  were  as  cheap  in  the  British  Isles  as 
they  are  at  present,  millions  of  acres  were  drained  with 
turf.  One  method  was  to  dig  the  drain  wedge-shaped, 
or  much  the  narrowest  at  the  bottom;  then  the  turf,  which 
had  been  taken  from  the  top,  was  cut  of  such  a  width 
and  shape  with  the  spade,  that  when  inverted  and  laid  in 
carefully,  it  would  rest  eight  or  ten  inches  from  the  bot- 
tom, and  support  all  the  earth  thrown  upon  it,  in  filling 
in  the  drain,  leaving  a  small  wedge-shaped  channel  at  the 
bottom,  which  lasted  many  years.  Another  plan  consisted 
in  cutting  down  the  sides  perpendicularly,  to  within  eight 
or  ten  inches  of  the  intended  bottom ;  then,  with  a  narrow 
spade,  or  one  made  with  one  edge  turned  up  about  two 
inches,  a  narrow  channel  was  dug,  and  good  shoulders  left, 
on  which  the  turf  could  be  firmly  laid.  These  turf  drains, 
in  clayey  land,  and  where  the  work  was  well  done,  often 
lasted  a  lifetime.  Of  late  years,  however,  tile  have  super- 
seded turf  in  all  kinds  of  soil.  Turf  drains  are,  perhaps, 
more  familiarly  known  as  wedge  and  shoulder  drains. 

Mole  Plows. — These  were  extensively  used  in  various 
parts  of  Europe,  some  fifty  years  ago.  They  seem  to  be 
attracting  some  attention  in  this  country,  at  the  present 


220  LAND  DRAINAGE. 

time.  On  lands  where  the  subsoil  is  a  tolerably  soft  and 
plastic  clay,  without  stones,  and  where  the  surface  has  a 
regular  inclination,  they  do  good  service;  and  the  water- 
courses opened  in  this  way,  often  continue  for  many 
years. 

Stone. — Drains  of  stone  are  formed  either  by  placing  them 
so  as  to  secure  a  clear  water-course,  or  the  drain  is  par- 
tially filled  up  with  small  stones  thrown  in,  and  the  wrater 
is  left  to  find  its  way  between  them.  A  good  water-way 
may  be  secured  either  by  placing  a  stone  on  each  side  of 
the  bottom,  and  laying  a  flat  stone  upon  them,  or  by  set- 
ting a  flat  stone  upon  the  edge,  on  one  side  of  the  drain, 
and  leaning  another  flat  stone  against  it  from  the  other 
side.  In  either  way,  care  must  be  taken  to  cover  well, 
with  more  stones,  all  the  spaces  through  which  sand  or 
earth  might  pass  to  obstruct  the  drain.  When  small 
stones  are  thrown  in  to  form  a  drain,  a  great  many 
troublesome  little  stones  may  be  disposed  of,  and  a  tol- 
erable drain  made,  but  it  is  very  liable  to  become  choked 
with  sand  or  earth,  and  so  made  useless.  In  short,  almost 
all  drains,  made  with  timber  or  stones,  are  liable  to  be  in- 
jured by  lobsters  or  moles,  or  be  otherwise  destroyed  and 
rendered  unsatisfactory. 

Tiles. — Where  good  tiles  can  be  obtained,  at  a  reason- 
able rate,  no  other  material  should  be  used,  under  any  cir- 
cumstances, because  no  other  material  makes  so  perfect  a 
drain,  is  so  durable,  or  so  cheap.  The  value  of  tiles  de- 
pend upon  their  form,  the  quality  of  the  clay  of  which 
they  are  made,  and  the  perfection  of  the  burning.  Horse- 
shoe tiles— that  is,  those  of  which  the  end  represents  a 
semicircle,  with  the  sides  compressed  a  little,  were,  many 
years  since,  extensively  used  in  England;  but  this 
form  has,  by  everybody  in.  that  country,  been  abandoned 
for  better.  The  water  running  through  them,  softens  the 


TILE    DRAINS.  221 

floor  on  which  they  stand,  and  consequently  one,  or  both 
sides  sink  down,  and  the  drain  is  obstructed.  This  diffi- 
culty is  obviated  by  the  use  of  soles,  of  the  same  or  some 
other  suitable  material ;  but  this  adds  to  the  expense  and 
trouble  of  laying.  Narrow  boards  are  used  in  this  coun- 
try instead  of  soles.  This  increases  the  cost,  and  the 
drains,  when  finished,  have  only  the  durability  of  the  wood 
that  is  used.  Sole  tiles  are,  in  general,  nearly  of  the  same 
form,  but  with  the  sole  added  in  the  manufacture.  These 
are  far  better  than  horse-shoe  tiles,  but  are  still  liable  to 
some  objections.  Being  widest  at  the  bottom,  the  stream 
of  water,  when  but  little  is  flowing,  is  spread  out  over  a 
wide  surface,  or  it  makes  for  itself  a  narrow  channel, 
which  turns  from  side  to  side  of  the  tiles,  and  deposits  in 
its  course  the  sand  which  always  finds  its  way  into  the 
drains,  sometimes  stopping  them  altogether;  while,  if  the 
tiles  were  contracted  at  the  bottom,  the  water  would  flow 
along  the  center  in  a  straight  line,  and  carry  the  sand  out 
of  the  drain.  Another  objection  grows  out  of  the  neces- 
sity of  laying  them  all  the  same  side  up ;  for,  if  warped 
in  drying  or  burning,  as  tiles  are  liable  to  be,  it  is  impos- 
sible, at  all  times,  to  make  perfect  joints.  A  form  of  sole 
tile  became  very  popular  for  a  time  in  England,  having 
the  sole  very  narrow,  and  wholly  on  the  outside,  while 
the  inside  was  contracted  at  the  bottom,  so  that  the  open- 
ing was  egg-shaped,  and  stood  the  small  end  down.  This 
form  perfectly  obviated  the  first  objection,  but  was  open 
to  the  second,  and  this  in  practice  was  found  so  serious 
that  this  form  of  tile  has  been  abandoned.  Pipe  tile,  as 
perfectly  round  as  they  can  be  made,  are  now  the  most 
approved  by  experienced  drainers.  The  principal  advan- 
tages of  this  form  are,  the  ease  with  which  they  are  laid, 
for  as  all  sides  are  alike,  and  the  tiles  are  warped  in  dry- 
ing or  burning,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  so  turning  them 


222  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

as  to  secure  a  perfectly  level  water-course,  and  at  the 
same  time  make  perfect  joints  ;  they  also  confine  the 
stream  to  the  center  of  the  channel,  and,  therefore,  leave 
in  the  tile  no  deposit  of  sand ;  it  is  also  easier  to  prepare 
the  bottom  of  the  drain  for  their  reception.  The  advan- 
tages are  so  decisive,  that  every  one  about  to  purchase 
a  tile  machine,  of  whatever  pattern,  should  order  pipe 
dies ;  and  any  one  who  has  the  choice  of  different  forms, 
should  select  pipes,  in  preference  to  any  other,  for  laying. 
But  more  on  this  subject  in  the  proper  place. 

Therefore,  in  regions  where  stone  or  tile  are  scarce,  or 
would  prove  more  expensive  than  in  districts  where  they 
are  more  abundant,  and  especially  in  sections  where  land 
is  cheap,  it  would  be  as  well  to  commence  with 

BRUSH   DRAINS. 

On  lands  where  stones  are  scarce  and  tile  dear,  but 
where  a  good  descent  for  the  drains  may  be  had,  brush 
drains  will  answer  a  good  purpose.  Being  nearly  ex- 
cluded from  air,  the  brush  will  not  decay  so  rapidly  as 
where  more  exposed.  We  have  read  accounts  of  some 
brush  drains  doing  good  service  for  fifteen  years ;  other 
accounts  are  to  the  effect  that  they  cave  in  and  become 
useless  in  the  course  of  three  or  four  years.  Much,  of 
course,  depends  upon  the  character  of  the  soil  in  which 
they  are  made.  In  situations  where  the  drains  will  be 
required  to  carry  off  a  large  amount  of  water,  it  must  be 
expected  that  the  sides  and  bottom  will  wash  more  or 
less — the  more  rapidly  it  washes,  as  a  matter  of  course, 
the  sooner  will  the  drains  become  useless.  At  best  they 
act  upon  the  same  principle  as  the  filter  in  the  ley  leach 
or  vat. 

"  The  drain  for  brush  is  dug  like  any  other  drain,  but  is  best  if  a 
foot  or  more  wide.  The  brush  may  be  cut  a  few  feet  in  length,  and 


BRUSH   DRAINS.  223 

should  not  be  more  than  an  inch  or  two  in  diameter.  If  the 
branches  are  straight  and  nearly  parallel,  they  may  be  larger  and 
longer  than  if  crooked  and  spreading.  In  the  latter  instance  they 
must  be  cut  quite  short,  or  they  will  not  lie  well.  Commence  al- 
ways at  the  upper  end,  and  let  the  butts  rest  on  the  bottom  of  the 
drain,  with  the  tops  pointing  upward,  or  from  the  descent.  This 
position  tends  constantly  to  throw  the  descending  water  to  the  bot- 
tom or  lowest  part  of  the  drain.  If  a  sufficient  quantity  of  brush 
be  laid  in  to  fill  the  ditch,  it  will  occupy,  after  being  trodden  down 
and  the  earth  filled  in,  only  about  one  third  of  the  ditch.  Inverted 
turf  forms  a  good  cover  for  the  brush,  before  throwing  the  earth  in. 
The  sides  should  be  nearly  perpendicular,  or  the  brush  will  not  set- 
tle well. 

"  Being  nearly  excluded  from  air,  the  brush  will  last  many  years. 
Some  kinds,  as  for  example,  cedar,  will  last  much  longer  than  others. 
But  even  when  quite  decayed,  there  will  still  be  a  good  channel  for 
the  escape  of  the  water,  in  the  many  veins  left  among  the  decayed 
branches,  the  earth  having  become  compact  and  well  settled  above, 
especially  in  soils  of  some  tenacity."  i 

Mr.  French  says : 

"  Open  the  trench  to  the  depth  required,  and  about  twelve  inches 
wide  at  the  bottom.  Lay  into  this  poles  of  four  or  five  inches  di- 
ameter at  the  butt,  leaving  an  open  passage  between.  Then  lay  in 
brush  of  any  size,  the  coarsest  at  the  bottom,  filling  the  drain  to 
within  a  foot  of  the  surface,  and  covering  with  pine,  or  hemlock,  or 
spruce  boughs.  Upon  these  lay  turf,  carefully  cut,  as  close  as  pos- 
sible. The  brush  should  be  laid  butt-end  up  stream,  as  it  obstructs 
the  water  less  in  this  way.  Fill  up  with  soil  a  foot  above  the  sur- 
face, and  tread  it  in  as  hard  as  possible.  The  weight  of  earth  will 
compress  the  brush,  and  the  surface  will  settle  very  much.  We 
have  tried  placing  boards  at  the  sides,  and  upon  the  top  of  the 
brush,  to  prevent  the  caving  in,  but  with  no  great  success.  Although 
our  drains  thus  laid,  have  generally  continued  to  discharge  some 
water,  yet  they  have,  upon  upland,  been  dangerous  traps  and  pit- 
falls for  our  horses  and  cattle,  and  have  cost  much  labor  to  fill  up 
the  holes,  where  they  have  fallen  through  by  washing  away  below." 

The  brush  should  be  laid,  as  Mr.  Thomas  says,  so  as  to 
"  let  the  butts  rest  on  the  bottom  of  the  drain,"  and  at 

1  J.  J.  Thomas,  in  Rural  Register. 
I 


224  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

the  same  time  have  the  butts  laid  "  down  stream,"  and 
not  up  stream,  as  directed  by  Mr.  French.  Where  the 
butts  are  laid  up  stream,  from  some  cause  or  other,  the 
drains  choke  much  sooner  than  when  laid  the  contrary 
Avay.  If  the  water  were  to  pass  over  the  brush  instead 
of  under  or  through  it,  Mr.  French's  directions  would  be 
correct. 

The  French  system  (or  system  practiced  in  France)  of 
brush  drains  is  perhaps  the  best.  At  the  bottom  of  the 
drain  short  pieces  of  wood  are  driven  in  to  the  depth  of 


FIG.  13. 

several  inches,  as  at  a  a,  Fig.  13,  on  which  the  brush  is 
laid  as  indicated  in  the  cut.  But  unless  the  drains  are  in  a 
stiff  clay,  the  wash  will  be  so  great  that  in  a  few  years 
the  whole  drain  will  be  useless. 

A  very  practical  gentleman,  who  is  an  occasional  cor- 
respondent of  the  Country  Gentleman,  says : 

"  We  have  at  different  times  within  the  past  fifteen  years,  made 
use  of  small  poles  for  filters  in  our  drains — have  used  various  kinds, 
such  as  hemlock,  spruce,  birch,  maple,  and  recently,  black  alder 
poles.  These  last  were  from  one  to  three  inches  in  diameter  at  the 
btunip,  and  from  ten  to  twenty  feet  long.  The  drains  were  two  and 
a  half  feet  deep,  and  about  ten  inches  wide  at  the  bottom.  Com- 
mence at  the  upper  end  of  the  ditch;  lay  in  from  four  to  six  poles, 
according  to  size,  and  so  on  to  the  end  of  the  ditch,  lapping  the 
poles,  as  directed  in  filling  in  brush.  Have  ready  a  supply  of  hem- 
lock, cedar,  or  spruce  boughs,  and  immediately  cover  the  poles,  to 
prevent  the  soil  from  the  sides  of  the  ditch  falling  in  and  clogging. 
After  the  boughs  are  nicely  shingled  over  the  poles,  step  into  the 
ditch,  drawing  in  with  a  hoe  a  few  inches  of  soil,  treading  it  solid; 


BRUSH   DRAINS. 


225 


working  backward,  so  as  to  press  the  covering  firm  upon  the  poles. 
The  ditch  can  then  be  finally  filled  with  the  shovel  or  plow. 

"  Drains  thus  made  fifteen  years  ago,  and  at  many  times  since, 
are  this  day  running  as  freely  as  any  tile  or  stone  drain  would  dis- 
charge the  water.  A  few  years  since,  I  drained  a  wet,  flat,  frost- 
heaving  piece  of  land ;  before  it  was  drained  it  was  nearly  worth- 
less, now  it  will  annually  pay  the  net  interest  of  more  than  one 
hundred  dollars  per  acre.  It  was  sowed  with  winter  wheat  the  first 
of  last  September ;  early  in  February,  the  snow  disappeared,  since 
which  time  the  surface  of  the  soil  has  been  frozen  and  thawed  more 
than  twenty  times,  yet  none  of  the  wheat  plants  are  thrown  out  or 
winter-killed,  and  the  field  is  as  green  as  when  the  snow  came  last 
November.  Without  drainage,  we  think  wheat  on  this  land  could 
not  have  lived  at  all  through  such  a  severe  trial.  In  thorough  un- 
derdraining  there  is  much  hard  work  and  expense,  but  as  far  as  our 
experience  goes,  it  is  a  thing  that  will  pay." 

In  many  portions  of  the  country, 
drains  are  made  as  follows  :  Two  poles 
or  saplings  are  laid  on  opposite  sides 
at  the  bottom  of  the  drain;  then  a 
third  pole  or  sapling,  somewhat  larger 
in  diameter,  is  laid  over  the  two,  as 
represented  in  Fig.  14 ;  when  the  poles 
are  laid  down,  the  ditch  is  then  filled 
with  the  material  which  was  dug  out 
of  it.  Drains  of  this  kind,  particu- 
larly in  wet,  swampy  or  mucky  land, 
answer  a  good  purpose  for  ten  or  fif- 
teen years.  Many  such  drains  are  to 
be  found  in  Northwestern  Ohio,  where  they  have  given 
general  satisfaction. 

In  constructing  drains  of  this  kind,  the  poles  should  be 
covered  with  turf,  or  some  other  material,  to  prevent  the 
earth  from  being  admitted  between  or  under  the  poles. 
In  some  instances  straw,  small  stones,  and  even  brush  have 
been  placed  on  the  poles  in  order  to  make  the  drains 


FIG.  14. 


226  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

"  draw,"  as  it  is  called ;  but  this  is  simply  material  and  labor 
lost,  because  the  water  will  very  readily  find  its  way  into 
the  drains,  and  wash  out  the  bottom  and  destroy  the  whole 
drain,  if  great  care  is  not  exercised  in  constructing  them. 
In  some  parts  of  the  county,  fence  rails  are  used  instead 
of  poles.  But  neither  brush,  stone,  poles,  nor  rails  should 
be  used,  if  tile  can  be  obtained  at  reasonable  prices.  The 
digging  and  filling  up  of  the  drain  cost  about  the  same, 
whether  brush,  poles  or  tiles  are  used,  and  since  tile  will 
last  so  much  longer,  we  have  cited  an  instance  where  tile 
were  laid  in  1620,  and  has  made  the  ground  more  fertile 
for  all  subsequent  time,  until  their  removal;  it  is  but  rea- 
sonable to  conclude  that  tile  are  in  the  end  much  the 
cheapest.  Underdraining  at  once  produces  a  marked  ef- 
fect upon  the  crops,  whether  the  conduits  are  made  of 
brush,  poles  or  tile ;  the  owner  of  the  land  is  not  obliged 
to  wait  for  years  for  a  remunerative  result,  as  in  the  case 
of  planting  an  orchard;  therefore,  where  the  farmer  can 
command  the  means,  it  is  by  all  means  advisable  to  make 
the  best  kinds  of  drains. 

PLUG   DRAINING,    OR    SUBSOIL   DRAINING. 

This  system  of  underdraining  does  not  require  the  use 
of  any  foreign  materials,  the  channel  for  the  water  being 
wholly  formed  of  clay,  to  which  this  kind  of  drain  is  alone 
suited.  It  was  the  invention  of  Mr.  Lumbert,  a  highly 
talented  agriculturist,  at  that  time  living  at  Wick  Hissing- 
ton,  Gloucestershire  (England),  where  he  made  the  first  ex- 
periment about  the  year  1803  ;!  in  1845,  the  tenant  (Wm. 
Bliss),  wrote  to  Mr.  Newman,  as  follows: 

"In  answer  to  your  letter  I  have  the  pleasure  of  stating  that  the 
drains  in  the  field  you  named  are  as  perfect  as  when  you  last  wrote  me, 

1  Charles  Newman.      Hints  on  Practical  Land  Drainage.  London,  1845. 


BRUSH    DRAINS.  227 

and  as  likely  to  last  as  when  first  made ;  and  my  opinion  is  that  if 
drains  are  well  rammed,  and  not  made  when  the  weather  is  frosty, 
the  clay  draining  will  last  as  long  as  any  other  drain  that  can  bo 
made.  What  I  have  ever  seen  fail  in  this  neighborhood,  has  been 
in  a  year  or  two  after  being  made,  and  in  my  opinion  resulted  from 
not  being  properly  rammed  down,  or  allowing  the  work  to  be  done  in 
frost,  which  has  the  effect  of  causing  the  clay  to  crumble  into  the 
drain." 

This  method  of  draining  requires  a  particular  set  of 
tools  for  its  execution;  consisting  of,  first,  a  common 
spade,  by  means  of  which,  the  first  spit  is  removed,  and 
laid  on  one  side ;  second,  a  smaller  sized  spade,  by  means 
of  which  the  second  spit  is  taken  out,  and  laid  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  trench  thus  formed;  third,  a  peculiar 
instrument  called  a  bitting  iron,  consisting  of  a  narrow 
spade  three  and  a  half  feet  in  length,  and  one  and  a  half 
inches  wide  at  the  mouth,  and  sharpened  like  a  chisel — 
the  mouth,  or  blade,  being  half  an  inch  in  thickness,  in 
order  to  give  the  necessary  strength  to  so  slender  an  im- 
plement. From  the  mouth,  on  the  right  hand  side,  a  wing 
of  steel,  six  inches  long,  and  two  and  a  half  broad,  pro- 
jects at  right  angles;  and  on  the  left,  at  fourteen  inches 
from  the  mouth,  a  tread,  three  inches  long,  is  fitted. 

The  method  of  using  this  tool  is  as  follows :  When  the 
first  and  second  spits  have  been  removed,  the  bitting  iron 
is  pushed  down  into  the  soft  clay  to  the  required  depth  of 
the  drain ;  it  is  then  withdrawn,  and,  after  being  turned 
round,  is  again  pushed  down  to  the  same  depth  as  before, 
but  six  inches  further  back  in  the  trench.  By  these  two 
cuts,  a  piece  of  clay,  six  inches  in  length  and  of  the  depth 
to  which  the  tool  had  been  pushed,  is  separated  on  all 
sides,  withdrawn  by  the  tool,  and  deposited  beside  the 
second  spit.  These  operations  are  repeated  until  a  neatly 
formed  trench  is  completed,  from  which  any  crumbs  are 
removed  by  a  narrow  scoop. 


228 


LAND   DRAINAGE. 


A  number  of  blocks  of  wood 
(see  Fig.  15),  each  one  foot 
long,  six  inches  high,  and  two 
inches  thick  at  the  bottom,  and 
two  and  a  half  at  the  top,  are 
next  required.  From  four  to 
six  of  these  are  joined  to- 
gether by  pieces  of  hoop-iron 
let  into  their  sides  by  a  saw 
draught ;  a  small  space  being 
left  between  their  ends,  so 
that  when  completed,  the 
whole  forms  a  somewhat  flex- 
ible bar,  as  shown  in  the  cut ; 
to  one  end  of  which  a  stout 
chain  is  attached.  These 
blocks  are  welted,  and  placed 
with  the  narrow  end  under- 
most in  the  bottom  of  the 
ditch,  which  should  be  cut  so 
as  to  fit  them  closely;  the 
clay  which  has  been  dug  out 
is  then  to  be  returned  by  de- 
grees upon  the  blocks  and  rammed  down  with  wooden 
rammers  three  inches  wide.  As  soon  as  the  portion  of 
the  trench  above  the  blocks,  or  plugs,  has  been  filled,  they 
are  drawn  forward,  by  means  of  a  lever  thrust  through  a 
link  of  the  chain,  and  into  the  bottom  of  the  drain  for  a 
fulcrum,  until  they  are  all  again  exposed,  except  the  last 
one.  The  further  portion  of  the  trench,  above  the  blocks, 
is  now  filled  in  and  rammed,  and  so  on,  the  operations 
proceed  until  the  whole  is  finished. 

Plug  draining   should  never  be  used  when  there  is  a 
want  of  fall  in  the  drains,  or  when  there  is  any  risk  of 


FIG.  15. 


WEDGE   AND   SHOULDER  DRAINS. 


229 


flooding,  for  the  tubes  formed  in  the  clay  are  rapidly  de- 
stroyed when  any  water  remains  standing  in  the  drain. 

Plug  draining,  as  may  readily  be  supposed,  can  not  be 
executed  very  cheaply.  The  nicety  required  in  all  the 
operations  connected  with  it  demands  the  services  of  skill- 
ful workmen,  so  that  it  sometimes  exceeds  the  cost  of  tile 
draining.  It  can  only  be  carried  on  on  lands  which  yields 
the  material  for  making  pipes;  and  now  that  (thanks  to 
railways)  coals  are  so  much  at  the  command  of  most 
districts,  it  can  not  be  recommended ;  and  is  mentioned 
here  rather  as  a  method  which  has  been  used  than  with 
any  view  to  encourage  its  adoption. 

WEDGE   AND   SHOULDER  DRAINS. 

These  were  made  to  a  considerable  extent,  in  former 
times  in  England,  even  after  the  mole  plow  was  laid  aside, 
although  they  are  of  the  same  general  character  of  the 
plug  and  mole  plow  drains,  that  is,  no  foreign  material  is 
required  to  form  a  water  channel.  Figs.  16  and  17  pre- 
sent a  sectional  view  of  the  wedge  and  shoulder  drains 
respectively.  The  description  of  them  we  copy  from 
Morton 's  Cyclopaedia  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  1C.— WE  nun  DRAIN.  FIG.  17.— SHOOLDEB  DRAIN. 

Wedge  and  Shoulder  Drains. —  These,  like  the  last- 


230  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

mentioned  drains,  are  mere  channels  formed  in  the  sub- 
soil. They  have,  therefore,  the  same  fault  of  want  of 
durability,  and  are  totally  unfit  for  land  under  the  plow. 

In  forming  wedge  drains,  the  first  spit,  with  the  turf 
attached,  is  laid  on  one  side,  and  the  earth,  removed  from 
the  remainder  of  the  trench,  is  laid  on  the  other.  The 
last  spade  used  is  very  narrow,  and  tapers  rapidly,  so  as 
to  form  a  narrow  wedge-shaped  cavity  for  the  bottom  of 
the  trench.  The  turf  first  removed,  is  then  cut  into  a 
wedge  so  much  larger  than  the  size  of  the  lower  part  of 
the  drain,  that  when  rammed  into  it  with  the  grassy  side 
undermost,  it  leaves  a  vacant  space  in  the  bottom,  of  six 
or  eight  inches  in  depth. 

The  Shoulder  Drain  does  not  differ  materially  from  the 
wedge  drain.  Instead  of  the  whole  trench,  forming  a 
gradually  tapering  wedge,  the  upper  portion  of  the  shoul- 
der drain  has  the  sides  of  the  trench  nearly  perpendicu- 
lar, and  of  considerable  width,  the  last  spit  only  being 
taken  out  with  a  narrow  tapering  spade,  by  which  means 
a  shoulder  is  left  on  either  side,  from  which  it  takes  its 
name.  After  the  trench  has  been  finished,  the  first  spit, 
having  the  grassy  side  downward,  as  in  the  former  case, 
is  placed  in  the  trench  and  pushed  down  till  it  rests  upon 
the  shoulders  already  mentioned,  so  that  a  narrow  wedge- 
shaped  channel  is  again  left  for  the  water. 

These  drains  may  be  formed  in  almost  any  kind  of  land 
which  is  not  a  loose  gravel  or  sand.  They  are  a  very 
cheap  kind  of  a  drain ;  for  neither  the  cost  of  cutting, 
nor  filling  in,  much  exceeds  that  of  the  ordinary  tile 
drain;  while  the  expense  of  tiles,  or  other  materials,  is 
altogether  saved;  still  such  drains  can  not  be  recom- 

O  ' 

mended,  for  they  are  very  liable  to  injury,  and  even  can 
only  last  a  very  limited  time. 


THE   MOLE   PLOW.  231 

MOLE   PLOW. 

After  the  advantages  consequent  upon  underdraining 
became  apparent  to  English  farmers,  they  conceived  the 
idea  of  underdraining  by  machinery.  Several  plows  were 
invented  and  patented  in  England,  the  object  of  which  was 
to  make  surface  drains  of  a  few  inches  depth  only.  The 
first  account  of  a  mole  plow  which  we  have  succeeded  in 
finding  is  in  the  "Repertory  of  Arts  and  Sciences"  vol.  8, 
a  serial  London  publication,  commencing  about  the  year 
1796.  This  is  the  first  record  we  could  find  of  an  imple- 
ment or  machine  with  which  covered  or  underground  drains 
were  successfully  made.  It  was  pretty  generally  used 
throughout  England  during  a  few  years,  but  was  soon  laid 
aside — at  least,  we  find  no  reference  made  to  it  as  being 
in  general  use  after  about  1805.  The  following,  from  Mr. 
Newman's  work  on  drainage,  indicates  that  greater  confi- 
dence was  reposed  in  plug  drains  than  in  the  drains  made 
by  the  mole  plow : 

"I  should  state  that  the  mole  plow,  worked  by  a  windlass,  was  a 
favorite  machine  of  Mr.  Lumbert  [the  inventor  of  plug  draining], 
for  which  he  had  a  patent  After  his  invention  of  the  subsoil  sys- 
tem, the  mole  plow  was  laid  aside — a  great  proof  of  the  superiority 
of  the  former.  Although  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  windlass 
mole  plow,  on  soils  suited  for  its  purpose,  is  a  very  useful  machine, 
it  is  only  calculated  for  strong  clay  land ;  and  even  on  such  land  it 
has  been  frequently  found  that  there  is  a  degree  of  uncertainty  aris- 
ing from  some  sorts  of  clay  being  too  soft,  and  consequently  filling 
up  the  orifice  and  spoiling  the  drain.  It  may,  however,  be  consid- 
ered useful  as  a  temporary  and  cheap  method  for  the  tenant,  but  it 
can  not  be  called  an  effectual  measure." 

We  intended  at  first  merely  to  mention  the  mole  plow 
as  one  of  the  means  devised  years  ago,  and  then  aban- 
doned, for  making  drains.  But  the  many  recent  successes 
with  it  in  the  state  of  Ohio,  in  Fayette,  Clinton,  Madison 


232 


LAND    DRAIXAGE. 


and  Union  counties,  make  it  worthy  of  more  than  a  mere 
passing  notice.  We,  therefore,  copy  the  account  of  the 
first  mole  plow  (Fig.  18)  from  the  Repertory  of  Arts  and 

Sciences  : 

THE   PIONEER   MOLE   PLOW.. 


FIG.  18. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  A  MACHINE  FOR  DRAINING  LAND,  CALLED  A 
MOLE  PLOW.1 

"For  this  invention  a  bounty  of  thirty  guineas  was  voted  to  Mr. 
Scott 2,  who  has  described  the  manner  of  using  the  machine  in  the 
following  letter : 

"The  bounty  above  mentioned  was  given  to  Mr.  Scott  in  the 
spring  of  the  year  1797,  and,  in  the  month  of  October  following,  a 
patent  was  taken  out  by  Mr.  Henry  Watts,  for  an  implement  for 
draining  land,  the  similarity  of  which  to  Mr.  Scott's  mole  plow  it  is 
unnecessary  for  us  to  point  out;  but  what  we  think  highly  import- 
ant to  inform  the  public  is,  that  Mr.  Scott,  who  sold  his  mole  plow 
for  two  guineas  and  a  half  (indeed,  Mr.  Welton's  letter  says,  'the 
price  of  the  plow  complete  is  about  two  guineas'), is  now  the  agent 

1  By  Mr.  Adam  Scott,  of  Guildford  Survey.— [From  the  Transactions  of 
the  Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  Arts,  Manufactures  and  Commerce.] 

2  When  bounties  for  machines,  etc.,  are  given  by  the  Society,  it  is  always 
upon  the  condition  that  the  machine,  or  a  model  thereof,  shall  be  deposited 
in  the  Society's  collection,  for  the  use  of  the  public;    it  is  also  expressly 
stated,  that  "  no  person   shall  receive  any  premium,  bounty  or  encourage- 
ment from  the  Society,  for  any  matter  for  which  he  has   obtained,  or  pro- 
poses to  obtain,  a  patent." 


THE   MOLE   PLOW.  233 

for  the  sale  of  Mr.  Watts'  patent  improvement,  at  the  enormous 
price  of  ten  guineas.  Such  of  our  readers  as  desire  a  further  ac- 
count of  this  matter,  will  find  a  long  letter  concerning  it  in  the  Gen- 
tleman's Magazine  for  February : 

"  The  mole  plow  has  been  used  in  Sutton  Park,  for  John  Webbe 
"Weston,  Esq.,  these  three  years  past,  and  is  found  to  answer  every 
purpose  of  underground  draining,  without  breaking  the  surface  any 
more  than  by  a  thin  coulter  being  drawn  along,  the  mark  of  which 
disappears  in  a  few  days.  A  man  and  boy,  with  four  horses,  may 
drain  thirty  acres  in  a  day,  provided  there  is  an  open  gripe  or  ditch 
cut  at  the  lower  side  of  the  ground  to  be  thus  drained,  in  order  to 
receive  the  water  from  those  small  cavities  which  the  plow  forms  in 
the  ground,  at  the  depth  of  twelve  inches  or  more.  The  method  of 
using  it  is,  to  go  down  and  up,  at  the  distance  of  fifteen,  twenty  or 
thirty  feet,  as  the  land  may  require.  This  alludes  to  grass  lands ; 
but  it  is  equally  good  for  turnips,  when  it  is  too  wet  for  sheep  to  feed 
them  off,  or  on  any  land  that  is  too  wet  to  sow;  either  of  which  evils 
it  will  remedy  in  a  very  short  time,  provided  there  is  some  declivity 
in  the  ground.  The  best  time  for  this  operation,  in  grass  lands,  is 
in  October  or  November,  when  the  land  has  received  moisture  enough 
for  the  plow  to  work,  and  not  so  much  as  to  injure  the  land  or  ren- 
der it  soft. 

"  A  further  account  of  this  plow  is  given  in  the  following  letter 
from  Mr.  Weston,  dated  Sutton  Place,  December  9,  ]  795 : 

"  '  With  respect  to  the  mole  plow,  I  really  think  too  much  can  not 
1)0  said  in  its  commendation ;  for  the  purpose  of  temporary  drain- 
ing, where  such  is  useful,  as  is  the  case  with  great  part  of  my  land 
laid  down  to  grass,  it  being  on  a  declivity,  and  is  too  wet  (in  the 
autumn  and  winter  only),  after  great  falls  of  rain  or  snow.  It  being 
free  from  land  springs,  I  conceived  it  improper  to  be  underdrained 
in  the  usual  way,  as  thereby  the  moisture  necessary  for  its  produc- 
ing a  crop  of  grass  would  be  carried  off  equally  at  all  seasons. 

"  'The  soil  is  very  light,  but-not  sandy,  to  the  depth  of  from  nine 
to  eighteen  inches,  or  more ;  and  underneath  is  a  strong  clay,  which 
renders  the  surface  absolutely  pouchy  in  winter;  but,  from  the  use 
of  this  instrument,  the  ground  on  which  a  man  could  not  walk  will,  in 
the  course  of  forty-eight  hours,  be  enabled  to  carry  any  cattle.  From 
ten  to  twenty  acres  may  be  easily  drained  in  one  day,  by  a  single 
team,  which  makes  the  expense  trifling,  though  it  should  be  neces- 
sary to  be  done  every  year. 

"  'The  drains  made  by  the  plow  should  be  in  direct  lines,  at  from 

\ 


284  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

ten  to  twenty  feet  apart,  and  all  vent  themselves  into  an  open  furrow 
or  gripe  at  the  bottom.  I  have  used  this  machine  for  four  seasons 
past,  and  with  great  success.  The  price  of  the  plow  complete  is 
about  two  guineas.  The  plow,  to  the  best  of  my  knowledge,  is  the 
sole  invention  of  my  steward,  Adam  Scott,  whose  ingenuity  on  thin 
and  many  other  occasions  deserves  every  encouragement.' 

"There  are  also  two  letters  from  Edmund  Bochen,  Esq.;  the  first 
from  Burwood  .Park,  dated  March  20,  1796,  is  as  follows : 

"  'Mr.  Scott's  mole  plow  is  so  contrived  that  it  makes  the  drains 
from  one  foot  to  eighteen  inches  deep ;  the  bore  two  inches  and  a 
half  in  diameter;  the  soil  rather  a  stiff  clay.  I  made  use  of  six 
horses,  but  am  inclined  to  think,  from  the  ease  with  which  they 
worked  it,  that  four  would  be  fully  sufficient.  I  shall  have,  next 
season,  a  better  opportunity  of  coming  to  a  certainty  on  the  subject. 
Should  you  wish  for  further  information,  I  shall  then  be  happy  to 
communicate  what  may  have  occurred. 

"  '  I  apprehend  this  plow  can  only  answer  in  soils  where  it  is  not 
likely  to  meet  with  any  material  obstruction;  in  mine,  I  flatter  my- 
self, I  shall  find  much  benefit  result  from  its  use.' 

"In  his  second  letter,  from  Ottershaw  Park,  dated  February  12 
1797,  Mr.  Bochen  says: 

"  '  On  the  first  of  this  month,  in  light  land,  my  drain  being  fourteen 
inches  deep,  I  worked  the  plow,  without  difficulty,  with  two  oxen  and 
three  horses ;  but,  in  the  strong  clays,  found  it  work  enough  for  four 
horses  and  two  oxen,  although  I  reduced  my  depth  two  inches.  The 
drains  1  have  drawn  on  low  wet  lands  and  clay  run  instantly  after 
the  plow.  On  these  lands  I  have  generally  drawn  the  drains  about 
twenty  feet  asunder,  and  find  them  much  firmer  and  drier.  I  con- 
ceive that,  except  in  very  heavy  land,  four  oxen  would  be  sufficient, 
and  fully  equal  to  two  oxen  and  three  horses,  as  the  former  step  and 
consequently  draw  much  better. 

"  '  The  mole  plow,  in  my  opinion,  fully  answers  the  intents  in  such 
lands  as  it  can  properly  work  in ;  nly  only  objection  being  to  the 
strength  required  to  work  it,  which  makes  it  impracticable  when  a 
large  team  is  not  kept. 

"  '  It  may  be  worthy  remark,  that  the  last  year's  drains,  which 
were  in  clay,  are  as  entire,  and  run  as  freely,  as  the  first  moment 
they  were  made.'  " 

Major  Dickinson,  of  Steuben  county,  New  York,  ap- 
pears to  have  been  the  first  one  to  introduce  the  mole  plow 


THE  MOLE   PLOW.  235 

in  this  country.     Major  Dickinson  himself,  in  a  recent  ad- 
dress, thus  speaks  of  what  he  calls  his 

SHANGHAE   PLOW. 

"  I  will  take  the  poorest  acre  of  stubble  ground,  and,  if  too  wet 
for  corn  in  the  first  place,  I  will  thoroughly  drain  it  with  a  Shanghae 
plow  and  four  yoke  of  oxen  in  three  hours. 

"  I  will  suppose  the  acre  to  be  twenty  rods  long  and  eight  rods 
wide.  To  thoroughly  drain  the  worst  of  your  clay  subsoil,  it  may 
require  a  drain  once  in  eight  feet,  and  they  can  be  made  so  cheaply 
that  1  can  afford  to  make  them  at  that  distance.  To  do  so,  will  re- 
quire the  team  to  travel  sixteen  times  over  the  twenty  rods  length- 
wise, or  one  mile  in  three  hours;  two  men  to  drive,  one  to  hold  the 
plow,  one  to  ride  the  beam,  and  one  to  carry  the  crowbar,  pick  up 
any  large  stones  thrown  out  by  going  to  the  right  or  left,  and  to  help 
to  carry  around  the  plow,  which  is  too  heavy  for  the  other  two  to  do 
quickly. 

"The  plow  is  quite  simple  in  its  construction,  consisting  of  a 
round  piece  of  iron,  three  and  a  half  or  four  inches  in  diameter, 
drawn  down  to  a  point,  with  a  furrow  cut  in  the  top  one  and  a  half 
inches  deep;  a  plate,  eighteen  inches  wide  and  three  feet  long,  with 
one  end  welded  into  the  furrow  of  the  round  bar,  while  the  other  is 
fastened  to  the  beam.  The  colter  is  six  inches  in  width,  and  is  fast- 
ened to  the  beam  at  one  end,  and  at  the  other  to  the  point  of  the 
round  bar.  The  colter  and  plate  are  each  three  fourths  of  an  inch 
thick,  which  is  the  entire  width  of  the  plow  above  the  round  iron 
at  the  bottom. 

"  It  would  require  much  more  power  to  draw  this  plow  on  some 
soils  than  on  yours.  The  strength  of  team  depends  entirely  on  the 
character  of  the  subsoil.  Cast  iron,  with  the  exception  of  the  colter, 
for  an  easy  soil  would  be  equally  good ;  and  from  eighteen  to  twen- 
ty-four inches  is  sufficiently  deep  to  run  the  plow.  I  can  as  thor- 
oughly drain  an  acre  of  ground  in  this  way  as  any  that  can  be  found 
in  Seneca  county." 

Within  the  past  three  or  four  years,  some  five  or  six 
patents  have  been  granted  to  persons  in  Madison  county, 
Ohio,  for  improvements  on  the  mole  plow.  These  Ohio 
mole  plows,  as  well  as  the  Marquis  and  Emerson  or  Go- 


236 


LAND    DRAINAGE. 


pher  plow  of  Illinois,  are  operated  by  a  capstan,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  19. 

Fig.  19  is  a  view  of  the  sweep  power,  capstan,  cable 
and  plow,  in  operation.  The  team  is  driven  around  the 
capstan  attached  to  the  lever,  by  which  the  cable  is  wound 

upon  the  capstan, 
and  the  plow  thus 
drawn  forward. 
F  F  are  anchor 
stakes,  to  secure 
the  power  in  place 
i.  while  being  oper- 
ated. The  cable 
is  100  feet  long, 
and,  when  the 
H  plow  is  drawn  up 
to  the  first  anchor 
stakes,  the  team  is  hitched  to  the  body  of  the  power,  and 
it  is  dragged  forward  100  feet,  and  set  again  for  another 
turn.  In  the  plow,  the  shank,  B,  is  set  to  go  the  desired 
depth.  This  machine  is  the  one  made  by  Lane  &  Loonier, 
of  Lockport,  111.  Fig  20  is  a  view  of  the  mole  and  foot 
of  the  shank;  this  mole  is  in  flexible  sections. 

Figs.  21  and  22  represent  Rowland  &  Forbis'  mole 
plow,  of  London,  Ohio,  patented  in  1859  ;  it  is  also  known 
as  the  Witherow  plow. 

The  improvements  here  represented  are  said  to  be  well 
adapted  to  the  purposes  intended ;  and  the  simplicity  of 
the  adjusting  apparatus,  in  combination  with  the  strength 
of  the  supports,  is  certainly  theoretically  much  in  its  favor. 
Fig.  21  represents  an  elevation  of  the  machine;  and  Fig. 
22  is  a  plan  or  a  view  taken  when  looking  down  upon  it. 
Similar  letters  refer  to  similar  parts  in  both  figures. 
At  A,  are  the  runners  for  carrying  and  guiding  the 


THE   MOLE    PLOW. 


237 


front  part  of  the  machine.  Upon  the  cross  bar  of  "  this 
sled"  rests  the  end  of  the  beam,  B,  to  which  the  draft  is 
attached  by  the  rope,  and  through  the  sled  by  the  bolt,  I. 


Fio.  22. 


The  rear  end  of  this  beam,  B,  is  supported  by  the  cord  or 
rope,  and  the  windlass,  by  means  of  which  the  depth  of 
the  mole  is  regulated.  C,  is  another  beam,  fastened  by 
iron  couplings  to  the  beam,  B,  as  shown  at  c  and  5,  and 
having  its  rear  end  resting  upon  the  axis  of  the  trucks,  1 1. 


238 


LAND    DRAINAGE. 


Upon  this  axis  are  placed  the  supports,  D  D,  which  sustain 
the  windlass.  These  supports  are  stayed  by  the  rods,  s  «, 
and  hence  can  be  inclined  backward,  as  shown  in  Fig.  21. 

E,  is  the  arm  to  which  the 
moles,  r  and  J,  are  attached. 
It  is  fastened  securely  in 
the  rear  end  of  the  beam,  B, 
by  the  iron  bolt,  w,  and 
keys,  n  n,  and  passing 
through  a  mortise  in  the 
beam,  C,  works  up  and  down 
against  the  friction  roller, 
at  /,  and,  as  is  evident,  re- 
ceives great  resistance  from 
it.  The  advantage  of  hav- 
ing the  mole,  J,  attached  as 
here  shown  at  y,  is,  that  it 
may  yield  to  stones  and 
other  objects  which  would 
be  likely  to  break  it. 

There  is  at  K,  a  cutter 
bolted  underneath  the  beam, 
0,  which  opens  the  sod  and 
separates  roots,  etc.,  before 
the  arm,  E. 

Letters  patent  were  grant- 
ed for  these  valuable  ar- 
rangements April  19, 1859, 
to  H.  W.  Rowland  and  E. 
Forbis,  and  the  right  was  as- 
signed to  themselves  and 
Washington  Witherow. 

Fig.   23    represents    the 
A?  is  the  beani?  in  which  a  wheel 


Cole  &  Wall  mole  plow. 


THE   MOLE    PLOW. 


239 


at  B,  moves  in  a  mortise ;  at  D,  is  a  circular  cutter,  in- 
tended to  cut  the  sod,  and  thus  lessen  friction.  E,  is  a 
cutter  bar  or  arm,  to  which  the  moles,  F  and  G,  are  at- 
tached ;  the  mole,  G,  has  a  fin,  H,  attached  to  the  under 
surface ;  C,  is  a 
wheel,  to  the 
axle  of  which 
two  stout  iron 
bars,  J  and  K, 
are  attached. 
The  bar  J, 
serves  as  a  reg- 
ulator of  the 
cutter,  E,  ele- 
vating or  de- 
pressing the 
mole  the  depth 
of  the  beam,  A. 

Fig.  24  rep- 
resents  the 
mole  and  cut- 
ter of  the  Bales' 
mole  plow. 

The  improve- 
ment here  rep- 
resented p  e  r- 
tains  principal- 
ly to  the  mole 
and  cutter — its 
adjustability  to 
various  depths,  etc.  A,  represents  the  beam  ;  B,  the  cut- 
ter shaft,  which  is  made  of  cast  steel,  made  light  and 
sharp,  and  polished,  so  as  to  pass  through  the  ground 
smooth  and  as  easily  as  possible,  that  the  ground  may 


240 


LAXD    DRAINAGE. 


y  close   be- 
hind it.  The  mole, 

D,  is  in  the  form 
of  a  wedge,  having 
a    sharp   edge    in 
front,  and  so  curv- 
ed  in    its    upper 
surface  as  to  form 
a  n      arch-shaped 
trench,  as   shown 
in  section  D  D,  5 
by  7  inches.     The 
mole  is  hollow  in 
the  bottom,  so  as 
to    prevent   its 
pressing  the  bot- 
tom,     permitting 
the  water  to   rise 
freely  through  the 
bottom,  and  made 
of  cast  steel  well 
polished. 

Fig.  25  repre- 
sents A.  Defen- 
baugh's  mole 
plow.  The  mole 
to  this  plow  is  at- 
tached by  a  stout 
link  to  the  lower 
portion  of  the  cut- 
ter bar,  or  colter, 

E.  The  mole,  H, 
has  a  circular  fin, 
m,  attached  to  it, 
and  the  sides  of 


THE   MOLE   PLOW.  241 

the  mole  are  furnished  with  friction  blocks  or  pulleys,  Jc  Jo 
k  k,  on  each  side.  The  colter  is  fixed  and  not  adjustable, 
but  the  beam,  D,  may  be  elevated  or  depressed,  by  means 
of  the  windlass,  B.  The  forward  end  of  the  beam  is  at- 
tached to  a  shoe  or  sled,  E  F. 

It  would  require  a  very  strong  team  to  operate  one  of 
these  plows  if  the  power  were  applied  directly — that  is, 
if  the  team  were  attached  to  the  end  of  the  beam,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  ordinary  plow.  But,  by  employing  a  cap- 
stan, as  represented  in  Fig.  19,  two  yoke  of  oxen  can 
operate  it  with  comparative  ease.  By  attaching  a  dyna- 
mometer at  the  end  of  the  lever  or  sweep  to  which  the 
team  is  hitched,  it  appears  that  about  250  pounds  is  all 
the  draught  required  to  cut  a  mole  36  to  40  inches  in  ordin- 
ary moist  clay  ;  but  if  the  dynamometer  is  attached  where 
the  cable  is  attached  to  the  beam  (D,  Fig.  19),  the  direct 
draught  is  indicated,  and  amounts  to  about  5,000  pounds. 
By  a  simple  arithmetical  process  the  direct  draught  is 
readily  determined,  viz  :  multiply  the  power  applied  at  the 
end  of  the  lever  or  sweep, by  the  length  of  the  sweep  in 
inches  (counting  from  the  center  of  the  capstan  or  reel), 
and  divide  the  product  by  half  the  diameter  of  the  reel  or 
capstan ;  the  quotient  will  be  the  direct  amount  of  power 
required  to  operate  the  implement  or  machine.  For  ex- 
ample, the  sweep,  in  Fig.  19,  to  which  the  oxen  are  at- 
tached, measures  16J  feet  or  198  inches ;  the  capstan  or 
reel  measures  16  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  dynamometer 
indicates  a  draught  of  250  pounds ;  what  is  the  actual 
force  or  power  necessary  to  operate  the  plow? 

250  poundsX!98  inches=49,50CU-8  inches— 6,1 81%  pounds. 

After  the  reel  or  spool  has  been  wound  fall  from  top  to 

bottom,  the  doubling  of  the  cable  on  the  reel  will  cause  an 

increase  of  power  to  be  applied;  the  double  cord  or  thread 

will  make  the  dynamometer  indicate  an  increase  of  75  to 

22 


242 


LAND   DRAINAGE. 


100  pounds ;  thus  making,  in  the  above-named  instance 
(with  a  two-inch  cable)  the  actual  draught  to  be  6,435 
pounds. 

During  the  first  days  of  July,  1859,  a  trial  of  five  dif- 
ferent patents  of  the  mole  plow  was  had  at  London,  Mad- 
ison county,  at  which  the  writer  acted  as  chairman  of  the 
examining  and  awarding  committee.  It  is  not  deemed 
inappropriate  to  insert  the  report  of  that  committee  in 
this  place — the  writer  having  in  the  meantime  neither 
seen  nor  learned  anything  in  relation  to  these  plows  to 
cause  him  to  change  a  single  idea  expressed  in  the  report. 

"According  to  previous  notice,  there  were  assembled  at  London, 
Madison  county,  0.,  a  large  concourse  of  persons,  chiefly  farmers, 
to  witness  the  trial  of  reapers,  mowers,  and  mole  plows  or  ditching 
machines.  It  may  not  be  generally  known  that  within  the  past 
twelve  months  there  have  been  five  patents  obtained  on  mole  plows, 
by  persons  in  Madison  county.  Each  one  of  these  plows  has  special 
merits,  and  the  agricultural  community  in  that  county  manifested 
considerable  anxiety  to  learn,  by  means  of  a  trial,  the  comparative 
merit  of  each.  The  entries  and  description  of  these  plows  were  as 
follows : 


— 

~ 

J 

0 

a 

<D 

~ 

CK 

a 

- 

J^ 

• 

f 

Q 

c 

S" 

th  Cuttei 

Diameter 

Mole. 

1 

1 

5 

Adjusta- 
bility. 

Cost. 

Draft. 

3 

P 

5° 

inches. 

=' 

f* 

Witherow    & 
Co., 

10 

5 

8 

5     x6^ 

If, 

16K 

good. 

$100 

300  double  cord. 
225  single      ' 

A.  Defen- 
baugh, 

15 

5 

9 

5%x7% 

L5 

16% 

good. 

250  single 
300  double 

—  Bales, 

18 

4K 

7 

5     x7 

16 

16^ 

250  single 
325  double 

Cole  &  Wall, 

16 

5 

8x6 

4     x5  | 

5     x8  j 

IS 

1834 

not  good. 

110 

250  single 
300  double 

Marquis, 

10 

4M 

8x6 

5    x7 

18 

18fc 

not  good. 

1  225  single 
J  300  double 

"  There  being  great  uniformity  in  the  operation  and  draft  of  the 
plows,  the  committee  found  it  impossible  to  take  the  working  quali- 


THE   MOLE   PLOW.  243 

ties  as  a  basis  of  the  award,  and  therefore  took  into  account  cost, 
adjustability,  and  the  shape  of  the  mole.  The  adjustability  of  the 
Witherow  plow,  being  very  convenient  in  operation,  and  so  gradu- 
ated that  the  operator  can  know  at  all  times  the  precise  depth  (by 
means  of  a  graduated  scale)  at  which  the  ditch  is  being  made,  to- 
gether with  the  cost  of  the  plow,  determined  the  committee  to  award 
it  the  first  premium.  The  mole  of  this  plow  is  an  angular  ovoid,  six 
and  a  half  inches  high,  five  in  horizontal  diameter,  running  down  to 
a  flat  base  of  about  two  inches.  The  mole  might  be  considerably 
improved  in  form. 

"  The  Defenbaugh  machine  is  adjusted  with  regard  to  depth  by  a 
windlass,  attached  in  the  rear  of  the  cutter,  or  colter,  by  which  a 
change  of  eighteen  inches  may  be  made  in  the  depth  of  the  ditch, 
but  the  operator  has  no  means  of  knowing  precisely  at  what  depth 
he  is  cutting.  The  form  of  the  mole  is  that  of  an  ellipse,  with  a  flat 
base,  from  the  center  of  which  proceeds  a  sharp  fin,  downward,  an 
inch  or  more.  Upon  the  whole,  the  mole  is  rather  better  than  that 
of  the  Witherow  plow. 

"  The  Bales  plow  is  not  without  merit.  On  the  trial  he  used  the 
capstan  of  the  Witherow  machine.  The  adjustability  is  more  diffi- 
cult than  in  either  of  the  preceding  ones,  while  the  mole  is  cer 
tainly  the  most  objectionable.  The  mole  is  seven  inches  in  perpen- 
dicular diameter,  and  five  in  horizontal.  It  is  well  known  that  a 
small  quantity  of  flowing  water  requires  a  very  limited  channel. 
The  mole  of  this  plow  presents  the  same  sized  channel  to  a  small, 
that  it  does  to  a  large  quantity  of  water.  When  water  has  a  wider 
channel  than  absolutely  necessary,  it  forms  a  zigzag  course,  and  de- 
posits whatever  foreign  matters,  such  as  sand,  roots  of  vegetables, 
etc.,  it  may  bring  with  it,  at  the  curves  it  has  made  in  its  course,  and 
in  a  short  time,  comparatively,  fills  up  from  this  cause.  But  if  the 
channel  is  so  constructed  that  a  small  quantity  of  water  has  a  very 
narrow  channel,  and  a  larger  quantity  of  water  a  wider  channel, 
the  probability  is  that  the  channel  will  be  kept  clear  a  much  longer 
period  than  where  a  uniformly  wide  channel  is  prepared  for  all 
stages  of  water. 

"  Although  the  Cole  &  Wall  plow  is  defective  in  being  readily 
adjusted  to  different  depths,  yet,  in  the  opinion  of  the  chairman  of 
the  committee,  the  mole  was  certainly  the  best  shaped  of  any  pre- 
sented for  competition.  Its  form  is  ovoid,  and  has  a  fin  four  inches 
in  depth,  extending  from  the  base  downward ;  this  fin  is  about  half 
an  inch  thick,  and  makes  a  deep  incision  in  the  earth,  in  the  bottom 


244  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

of  the  drain,  thus  making  a  very  narrow  channel  for  the  water  when 
at  a  low  stage.  When  operating,  two  moles  are  attached ;  the  first 
one  measures  four  by  five  inches,  while  the  second  one  is  five  by 
eight  inches.  It  is  claimed  that  the  second  mole,  being  a  short  dis- 
tance behind  the  first  one,  and  being  three  more  inches  in  perpen- 
dicular diameter,  completely  closes  the  incision  made  by  the  colter, 
and  thus  prevents  the  drain  from  filling  by  substances  falling  in 
from  above,  more  effectually  than  the  others.  On  account  of  the 
superiority  of  the  mole,  the  committee  awarded  to  this  plow  the 
second  premium. 

"  The  Marquis,  or  Illinois  mole  plow,  is  one  among  the  earliest 
patented  in  this  country.  On  the  trial,  it  was  operated  by  the  Cole 
&  Wall  capstan.  It  is  defective  in  adjustability  to  different  depths, 
and  the  shape  of  the  mole  was,  by  the  committee,  considered  to  be 
not  superior  in  form  to  that  of  the  Bales  plow,  although  evidently 
more  durable  in  structure,  yet  objectionable  because  it  makes  a 
drain  with  a  flat  bottom  of  five  inches  in  width. 

"  Each  plow  was  furnished  with  one  hundred  feet  of  two-inch 
cable,  and  each  drained  or  ditched  at  about  the  depth  of  three  feet, 
or  forty  inches.  The  length  of  drain  which  each  is  capable  of  mak- 
ing per  day  is  about  the  same.  The  character  of  the  land  on  which 
the  trial  was  made,  may  be  said  to  consist  of  a  stiff  clay  subsoil, 
and  a  rather  stiff  loamy  clay  soil.  With  a  good  team,  any  one  of 
these  plows  can  ditch  from  seventy-five  to  a  hundred  rods  per  day, 
in  the  kind  of  soil  in  which  the  trial  was  made. 

"  The  committee  desire  it  to  be  distinctly  understood  that  they  do 
not  consider  these  mole  plows  to  be  of  any  considerable  utility  in 
any  other  than  level,  or  very  slightly  undulating  clay  lands.  For 
sandy  loams,  or  gravelly  soils,  or  very  undulating  lands,  they  can  not 
commend  them.  In  such  lands,  the  only  method  of  securing  the 
advantages  of  underdraining,  is  to  employ  drain  pipe  tiles. 

"  The  mole  plow  is  useful,  inasmuch  as  it  helps  to  demonstrate 
the  benefits  of  thorough  draining  more  promptly  than  it  could  other- 
wise be  done,  although  this  has  never  been  found  the  best  method 
of  making  drains.  The  fact  that  work  done  in  this  manner  is  never 
permanent,  and  that  mole  plows  are  adapted  to  use  on  a  part  only 
of  the  lands  needing  drainage,  has  always  prevented  their  coming 
into  general  use,  while  tile  draining  has  the  advantage  of  being 
suited  to  lands  of  every  character,  whatever  the  nature  of  the  soil 
or  surface,  and  the  further  advantage  of  being  permanent,  and  in 
most  cases  actually  cheaper  than  any  other  method." 


THE   MOLE   PLOW.  245 

We  will  conclude  this  notice  of  the  mole  plows  with  the 
following  communication  to  the  Ohio  Farmer,  from  the 
pen  of  James  M.  Trimble,  of  Hillsboro,  Highland  county, 
Ohio.  Mr.  Trimble  is  engaged  in  farming  on  an  exten- 
sive scale,  and  is  well  and  favorably  known  to  the  Ohio 
agricultural  community : 

"  Spending  some  six  or  eight  days  on  my  farm  in  Fayette,  while 
looking  over  the  farm  accounts,  I  was  reminded  of  my  promise  made, 
to  give  you  the  result  of  our  ditching  and  underdraining  operations 
for  the  year  1860.  I  have  with  some  care  taken  from  the  diary  of 
the  farm  the  ditching  and  underdraining  account.  The  present  ac- 
count includes  the  work  of  1858  and  1859,  which  I  gave  you  last 
year.  The  creek  runs  north  and  southerly  across  the  farm ;  the  work 
has  been  confined  to  the  prairie  land  west  of  the  creek.  The  open 
ditches  contain  in  all  2,041  rods,  varying  from  3£  to  6  feet  in  depth, 
and  cut  at  a  cost  of  $910.  The  land  next  to,  and  adjoining  the 
creeks,  for  some  30  to  50  rods,  is  from  two  to  five  feet  higher  than  it 
is  from  100  to  200  rods  west,  which  required  the  outlets  or  open 
ditches  to  be  some  three  to  five  feet  deeper  across  this  elevation  than 
those  are  from  100  to  200  rods  west  of  the  creek. 

"  The  drains  were  put  in  at  from  three  feet  to  three  feet  six  inches 
deep,  which  received  the  working  of  the  mole  at  a  sufficient  depth 
in  the  clay  subsoil  to  make  the  drains  more  permanent  and  lasting. 
The  total  amount  of  underdrains  put  in  is  4,560  rods,  at  a  cost  of 
$190,  making  the  entire  cost  of  open  and  underdrains  $1,100,  from 
which,  deducting  $536,  expended  in  1858  and  185^  leaves  $564,  ex- 
pended in  1860.  Most  of  the  open  ditches  cut  during  the  last  year, 
were  made  with  the  plow  and  scraper.  They  are  not  only  a  cheaper 
but  a  better  ditch  than  those  cut  with  a  spade,  the  dirt  being  re- 
moved so  far  from  the  bank  as  to  prevent  its  washing  or  falling  into 
the  ditch.  The  fall  in  the  drains  and  open  ditches  is  barely  suffi- 
cient to  carry  off  the  water.  In  time  of  high  water,  the  creek 
leaches  up  some  of  the  open  ditches  a  distance  of  200  rods.  The 
underdrains  were  laid  so  as  to  receive  a  regular  fall  of  about  one 
inch  to  500  feet,  which  J  think  a  decided  advantage  in  mole  drains, 
as  it  secures  them  permanently  from  any  current  or  wash,  in  throw- 
ing off  the  surplus  water. 

"  The  land,  with  the  exception  of  an  occasional  grove  of  timber 
was  broken  up,  planted,  and  well  cultivated  in  corn  this  year,  with 


246  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

the  exception  of  sixty  acres  of  prairie  sod,  broken  late;  it  was 
planted  in  corn  with  JBarnhill's  drill,  thinned  out,  but  not  cultivated. 

"  Although  not  accurately  measured  with  compass  and  chain,  yet 
we  have  so  far  measured  the  ground  as  to  satisfy  us,  that,  excluding 
groves,  we  had  400  acres  in  corn,  200  acres  of  which  have  been  cut 
up  and  put  in  shock.  Of  that  left  standing,  we  have  husked  and 
fed  at  the  rate  of  100  bushels  per  day,  for  the  last  sixty  days,  and 
have  husked  out  a  number  of  fallen  shocks  of  that  shocked  up. 
From  the  amount  husked  out,  we  have  no  doubt  that  the  entire  crop 
of  400  acres  will  average  over  66  bushels  per  acre.  My  son  and  Mr. 
Jere  Shelton,  who  have  charge  of  the  work  and  farming  the  land, 
concur  in  the  opinion  that  fifteen  bushels  of  corn  per  acre  is  but  a 
fair  estimate  for  the  excess  in  yield,  on  account  of  underdrains. 
I  would  put  it  at  twenty;  but  taking  their  estimate,  the  ac- 
count will  stand  thus:  Farm  Dr.  to  open  and  underdrains,  $1,100; 
Cr.  by  extra  yield  of  crop,  15  bushels  per  acre  on  400  acres,  which 
is  6,000  bushels  of  corn,  at  25  cents  per  bushel,  makes  $1,500,  from 
which  deduct  $564,  cost  of  open  and  underdrains  for  1860,  and  you 
have  $936  as  the  profit  for  1860. 

"Now,  this  looks  like  extravagant  work  on  paper,  and  the  question 
might  be  asked  if  llf  rods  of  underdrain,  and  some  two  rods  of 
open  ditch  per  acre  (about  one  half  of  the  open  ditch,  extending 
over  900  acres  of  land),  at  a  cost  of  $2  per  acre,  or  less,  well  give 
these  results,  what  will  thorough  drainage  do  ?  To  this  I  would 
reply,  judging  from  the  corn,  directly  over  and  within  six  to  eight 
feet  of  the  underdrains,  and  comparing  it  with  that  beyond  the  influ- 
ence of  the  drains,  1  would  put  the  crop  at  100  bushels  in  lieu  of  66 
bushels. 

"  As  to  the  question  of  durability  of  mole  drains  (a  very  important 
item  in  their  economy),  I  can  only  say,  from  present  indications, 
my  better  impression  is,  that  they  may  last  ten  or  more  years,  and 
that  they  will  last  five  years,  1  have  no  doubt. 

"The  fall  rains  have  started  the  most  of  my  underdraining;  they 
are  throwing  off  small  streams  of  water,  as  freely  as  they  did  last 
spring;  if  there  is  a  single  defective  drain  on  the  farm,  1  am  not 
aware  of  it.  Last  spring,  in  constructing  new  drains,  it  became 
necessary  to  connect  with  those  made  a  year  previous.  In  digging 
down  to,  and  boxing  up  these  connections,  we  found  the  original 
drain  sound  and  perfect  in  every  instance.  I  have  no  fears  of  my 
drains  crumbling  in,  caving  in,  or  filling  up,  at  least  for  many  years 
to  come.  Most  of  the  defective  mole  drains  that  I  have  seen  or 


THE  MOLE  PLOW.  247 

heard  of,  cave  in  from  the  top  of  the  ground  to  the  bottom  of  the 
drain,  or  they  fill  up.  This  is  owing  to  two  causes :  First,  too  much 
fall  has  been  given  to  the  drain,  and  the  seam  or  aperture  made  by 
the  cutter  bar  is  not  permanently  closed  at  the  top  of  the  drain, 
either  of  which  is  fatal  to  a  mole  drain.  Second,  the  grade  of  the 
drain  should  be  regular,  and  not  run  so  as  to  make  a  syphon;  lead 
pipes  or  tile  may  answer  in  such  drains;  without  either  the  one  or  the 
other,  the  drains  will  fill  up.  A  mole  drain,  with  a  regular,  gradual 
fall  of  one  inch  to  1,000  feet,  is  abundantly  better  than  one  with 
irregular  falls  and  rises,  as  the  inequalities  of  the  ground  happen 
to  be,  with  a  fall  of  three  feet  in  1,000. 

"  In  the  construction  of  mole  drains,  my  experience  has  taught 
me  that  the  great  trouble  and  danger  is  in  the  top,  the  arch  and  roof  of 
the  drain,  and  not  in  the  bottom,  as  some  suppose.  The  last  ditcher 
(Emmerson's  patent),  the  mole  has  been  improved — as  I  think,  very 
much  improved  in  form  and  shape.  The  bottom  is  hollowed  out 
more ;  the  sides  are  rounded  from  the  bottom  to  the  apex  of  the  cone 
of  the  mole,  so  as  to  throw  the  pressure  equal  from  the  side  and  bot- 
tom of  the  drain  to  the  cone  or  arch,  and  the  nub  on  the  end  of  the 
mole,  back  of  the  cutter,  is  elevated  some  three  inches  above  the 
level  of  the  mole,  which  effectually  closes  the  aperture  made  by  the 
cutter,  making  it  as  solid  and  permanent  as  any  other  portion  of  the 
drain.  My  examinations  in  digging  down  to,  and  cutting  away  the 
arch,  or  the  roof  of  the  drain,  has  satisfied  me  that  nine  tenths  of 
all  the  water  going  into  the  drains,  enters  at  the  bottom  of  the  drain, 
and  not  through  the  roof  and  sides ;  they  are  more  impervious  to 
water  than  tile.  From  the  best  information  I  can  get,  there  are  at 
this  time  not  less  than  200  miles  of  mole  drain  in  Fayette  and  Clin- 
ton counties,  put  in  within  the  past  two  years,  and  at  an  average 
cost  not  to  exceed  five  cents  per  rod  (when  the  owners  of  the  land 
put  it  in) ;  in  some  cases,  by  contract,  ten  and  fifteen  cents  per  rod 
was  charged.  The  drains,  so  far  as  I  can  learn,  have  very  generally 
given  satisfaction. 

"  I  may  have  been  tedious  in  this  statement,  if  so,  my  apology  is 
in  the  importance  of  the  subject  of  underdraining  our  lands,  and 
the  economy  in  the  use  of  the  mole  plow  in  preference  to  tile  or 
stone." 

Mr.  J.  C.  Miller,  of  Union  county,  Ohio,  is  the  inven- 
tor of  a  traction  engine,  propelled  or  operated  by  horse 
power,  to  which  is  attached  a  mole  plow,  that  opens  the 


248  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

channel  and  cements  it  as  it  progresses,  by  letting  down 
a  cement  ready  made  of  water  lime  through  a  flat  tube  in 
the  rear  of  the  cutter  or  colter,  directly  upon  the  rear 
of  the  mole,  and  which  is  pressed  into  shape  by  a  wooden 
mole  trowel  following. 

For  ourself  we  have  no  confidence  in  this  matter  of 
cement,  for  the  reason  that  none  of  the  arches  break 
down  from  above,  but  where  the  arches  do  fall  in,  the  sides 
jind  bottom  wash  so  as  to  let  down  the  top,  and  the  same 
causes  operating  will  cause  the  cemented  arch  to  fall.  In 
making  the  drain  with  the  mole  plow,  the  top  and  portions 
of  the  sides  become  very  hardly  packed ;  in  fact,  so  much 
so  as  almost  to  exclude  water,  and  the  coat  of  cement 
will  give  it  no  additional  support.  A  sufficient  amount  of 
cement  we  do  not  think  could  be  introduced  to  make  a 
substantial  arch  for  a  loamy  soil. 

In  addition  to  the  kinds  already  described,  there  are 
yet,  aside  from  pipe  tile  and  stone  drains,  those  described 
in  British  works  under  the  head  of  Bog  drains  and  Sheep 
drains.  Having  never  witnessed  any  of  these  kinds  of 
drains,  and  being  doubtful  whether  any  exist  in  the  United 
States,  we  copy  the  following  description  and  figures  from 
Morton's  Cyclopaedia  of  Agriculture : 

SHEEP   DRAINS. 

"  In  forming  sheep  drains,  the  main  drains  should  be  first  opened 
in  the  most  suitable  places,  and  the  minor  drains  then  led  into  them. 
In  peaty  or  boggy  places,  the  workman  first  proceeds  to  mark  out, 
on  both  sides  of  the  drain,  with  a  strong  and  heavy  edging-tool. 
This  tool  should  be  edged  with  steel,  and  have  a  cross  handle,  which 
the  workman  can  seize  with  both  hands.  This  is  the  tool  we  have 
found  all  workmen  to  prefer;  for  by  simply  raising  it  a  foot  or  so 
above  the  surface,  and  causing  it  to  descend  with  sudden  force,  it 
cuts  through  the  tough,  wiry  stems  of  heath,  or  other  obstacles,  and 
at  once  makes  a  cut  of  considerable  depth  into  the  sod  also.  When 
the  line  of  drain  is  thus  marked  out,  the  workman  proceeds  to  divide 


SHEEP   DRAINS.  249 

the  sod  which  he  has  separated,  into  convenient  lengths,  by  trans- 
verse cuts  with  the  same  tool;  and  these  he  drags  out  and  deposits 
on  the  lower  side  of  the  line  of  drains,  by  means  of  a  light  .drag, 
placing  the  grassy  side  undermost  The  drain  is  afterward  deep- 
ened, and  finished  off  with  a  common  spade;  the  soil  or  peat  dug 
out  is  placed  upon  and  behind  the  sods  already  removed,  after  which, 
a  blow  or  two  from  the  spade  gives  a  finish  to  the  bank  and  com- 
pletes the  operation,  giving  the  trench  and  bank  the  form  repre- 
sented in  the  following  cut.  In  places  where  the  surface  is  not  of 
a  boggy  nature,  the  common  spade  must  take  the  place  of  the  edging- 
tool  and  drag. 


Fio.  26.  —  SHEEP  DRAIN. 

11  Bog  Draining.  —  In  draining  deep  bogs,  the  removal  of  water 
causes  a  great  alteration  in  the  hight  of  the  surface  of  the  bog, 
which  rapidly  sinks  as  the  drying  process  goes  on.  This  constant 
alteration  of  the  level,  and  the  soft  nature  of  bogs,  render  the  use 
of  heavy  materials,  for  forming  drains  in.  them,  improper.  Where 
the  bog  does  not  exceed  six  or  eight  feet  in  depth,  the  best  plan  is  to 
cut  quite  through  it,  to  the  bed  of  solid  material  on  which  it  rests, 
and  then  to  form  drains  of  some  of  the  more  permanent  materials ; 
but  when  the  bog  is  so  deep  as  to  render  this  plan  impracticable, 
the  proper  course  to  pursue  is  to  divide  it  into  brakes,  by  means  of 
large,  open  ditches,  into  which  the  subsidiary  drains  are  made  to 
empty.  The  subsidiary  drains  may  be  formed  somewhat  in  the 
manner  of  the  shoulder  drain.  They  must  be  made  at  least  eighteen 
inches  wide,  and  the  turf  first  taken  out  is  to  be  laid  on  one  side,  to 
be  used  for  forming  the  roof  of  the  drains.  The  trench  should  not 
be  taken  out  the  full  depth  of  the  drain  at  once,  but  should  be  left 
unfinished  for  a  few  months,  in  order  that  the  bog  may  subside. 
Before  the  autumnal  rains  commence,  the  drains  should  be  finished, 
by  paring  down  their  sides  in  a  perpendicular  direction,  to  within  a 


250  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

foot  of  the  depth  they  are  intended  to  be  made.  The  bottom  spit  is 
then  taken  out,  precisely  as  in  the  case  of  the  shoulder  drain  in 
grass  lands,  except  that  it  must  be  wider,  to  allow  for  the  sides 
coming  somewhat  together,  owing  to  the  soft  nature  of  the  bog. 
When  the  trench  is  neatly  and  properly  finished,  the  turf  first  re- 
moved is  to  be  returned  into  the  drain,  which  it  should  just  fit.  Tho 
surface  portion  should  be  placed  undermost,  resting  upon  the  shoul- 
ders ;  the  rest  of  the  trench  should  then  be  filled  up  with  the  remain- 
der of  the  peat  which  had  been  removed.  If  proper  care  is  exer- 
cised in  cutting  the  drain,  the  pieces  may  be  made  to  fit  neatly 
into  the  trench  again,  forming  a  very  complete  and  efficient  drain. 
"In  bog  draining,  a  conduit  has  been  employed,  formed  of  peat, 
somewhat  in  the  form  of  a  pipe  in  two  halves,  Fig.  27.  These  pipes 
are  formed  at  once  in  the  bog,  by  means  of  a  peculiar  kind  of  tool, 
invented  by  Mr.  Calderwood.  If  properly  dried,  they  are  very  dur- 
able, and  can  be  formed  at  a  very  low  price,  as  an  expert  workman 
can  turn  out  two  or  three  thousand  a  day,  when  the  peat  is  of  suit- 
able description.  From  their  lightness,  they  answer  well  in  bog 
draining,  and  it  has  been  attempted  to  introduce  them  into  draining 
operations  in  arable  land;  but  the  low  price  at  which  tiles  can  now 
be  made,  almost  at  any  place,  renders  such  a  practice  very  question- 
able economy." 

These,  then,  are  the  principal  kinds 
of  drains  in  which  the  conduit  is 
composed  solely  of  the  materials  of 
the  ground  in  which  they  are  formed. 
The  cost  of  a  permanent  drain  now 
FIG.  27.— PEAT  TILES.  so  little  exceeds  even  the  cheapest 

of  those  described,  that  special  and  weighty  reasons  alone  can  jus- 
tify the  employment  of  any  other.  We  shall  now  consider  the  more 
durable  forms  of  drains. 

STONE   DRAINS. 

Every  portion  of  the  country  appears  to  be  abundantly 
supplied  with  materials  of  some  description  for  draining. 
Where  timber  is  scarce,  stone  is  abundant;  or,  if  both  are 
wanting,  then  there  generally  is  an  excellent  deposit  of 
clay,  from  which  tile  may  be  manufactured.  It  is  an  es- 
tablished fact,  that  underdraining  will  pay  all  reasonable 
expenses  incurred  in  its  construction  in  the  course  of  three 


STONE   DRAINS.  251 

or  four  years,  and  not  unfrequently  the  first  year  alone, 
by  the  increased  productiveness.  It  therefore  behooves 
the  farmer  to  consider  well  what  kind  of  drains  his  pres- 
ent means  will  justify  him  in  making.  The  digging  and 
filling  the  drains  will  cost  about  the  same  for  any  kind, 
except  tile — the  difference  in  cost,  then,  will  depend  upon 
the  material  employed.  If  stones  are  to  be  hauled  two 
or  three  miles,  then,  perhaps,  wooden  drains,  as  already 
described,  would  be  cheaper,  and  will  answer  the  purpose 
for  some  five  or  six  years — at  the  end  of  which  time  the 
farmer  will  be  enabled  to  redrain,  and  in-  a  more  thorough 
manner.  But,  if  stones  are  abundant  on  the  field  to  be 
underdrained,  or  in  the  adjoining  fields,  it  would,  perhaps, 
be  a  matter  of  economy  to  employ  the  stone,  for  two  rea- 
sons :  first,  stone  will  make  a  drain  which  will  secure  the 
object  intended;  and  second,  the  surface  of  fields  will  be 
cleared  of  a  great  nuisance  and  hindrance  to  a  more  per- 
fect system  of  culture. 

Stone  drains  never  should  be  dug  less  than  three  feet 
deep,  and  one  foot  wide  on  the  bottom.  Stone  should  be 
filled  in  to  the  depth  of  one  foot,  at  least,  and  then  be 
covered  with  brush,  straw,  leaves,  sod  with  the  grassy  side 
down,  or  some  such  material,  so  as  to  prevent  the  dirt 
from  falling  in  and  filling  up  the  interstices. 

What  kind  of  stone  shall  be  employed,  and  how  should 
they  be  placed  in  the  drain? — In  many  places  persons 
would,  perhaps,  be  obliged  to  use  the  rounded  little  bowl- 
ders, found  in  the  beds  of  streams,  or  stones  of  this  char- 
acter which  are  found  on  the  surface  of  fields.  Flat 
stones,  or  fragmentary  ones  from  quarries,  are  not  always 
accessible  or  within  a  proper  distance.  Where  the  rounded 
bowlders  are  employed,  many  persons  are  of  opinion  that 
the  manner  in  which  they  are  laid  in  the  drain  is  a  matter 
of  no  consequence  whatever,  and,  to  use  their  expression, 


252 


LAND   DRAINAGE. 


FIG.  28 — DRAINS  FILLED 
WITH  SMALL  STONES. 


they  "just  throw  them  in l  higglety-pigglety,'  "  feeling  cer- 
tain that  there  will  at  best  be  ample  space  for  the  water  to 
pass  through.  A  drain  of  this  description  is  represented  in 
Fig.  28.  It  must  be  obvious  to  every  one  that  where  the 
drain  is  filled  with  stones,  without 
any  regard  to  forming  a  continuous 
channel  for  the  water,  fine  dirt  will 
be  carried  down  from  the  sides,  or 
from  the  stones  themselves,  and  in  a 
very  short  time  the  interstices  in  the 
bottom  layer  will  be  found  to  be  com- 
pletely filled  up,  and,  as  a  matter  of 
course,  rendered  entirely  useless. 
Layer  after  layer  will,  year  after 
year,  be  filled  up,  until  the  drain  is 
rendered  valueless  in  the  last  de- 
gree. A  better  method  of  using  the 
bowlders  is  described  by  C.  G.  Calkins,  of  Ashtabula,  0. 

"  Some  four  years  since,  an  old  countryman  in  my  employ  informed 
me  that  he  could  lay  an  effectual  '  pipe '  of  small  stones  regularly 
in  three  courses,  one  on  each  side,  and  one  on  the  '  shoulders '  of 
these,  forming  the  top.  The  top  course  must  be  laid  so  as  to  wedge 
between  the  others,  to  keep  them  apart,  and  must  be  covered  with 
turf,  straw,  or  something  to  keep  the  earth  from  filling  in,  until  an 
enduring  crust  is  formed.  We  tried  'taking  up'  a  water  vein,  in  a 
hillside,  running  along  nearly  on  a  level,  and  forming  numerous 
springs.  There  is  a  strata  of  quicksand,  in  or  at  the  bottom  of  which 
the  stones  were  laid.  The  trench  was  dug  from  two  to  four  feet 
deep,  and  no  wider  at  the  bottom  than  was  necessary  to  receive  the 
'  pipe ' — say  one  foot.  It  was  filled  rather  imperfectly,  being  on  a 
steep  bank,  where  tilling  could  not  be  done.  It  was  fully  success- 
ful— intercepting  all  the  springs,  emptying  them  in  a  single  and  con- 
stant stream  at  the  mouth  of  the  drain,  and  continues  as  good  as  at 
first. 

"  The  amount  of  stones  required  in  a  drain  of  this  kind  is  not 
large,  and  an  experienced  hand  will  lay  30  or  40  rods  in  a  day. 


STONE   DRAINS.  253 

"  Some  days  after  a  light  rain,  and  when  all  around  is  dry,  this 
drain  is  seen  discharging  water,  though  dug  in  a  ridge  of  the  hardest 
clay  soil 

"It  will  avail  little  to  express  my  faith  in  the  utility  or  practica- 
bility of  this  or  any  other  mode  of  underdraining,  so  long  as  that 
faith  is  not  followed  by '  works '  more  extended.  It,  however,  appears 
providential  that,  in  a  region  almost  destitute  of  stone,  these  little 
bowlders  should  appear  so  well  dispersed,  and  at  the  same  time  so 
fitted  to  this  important  use — draining  the  soil  they  now  incumber. 
However,  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  if  the  manufacture  of  draining 
tiles  was  commenced,  there  would  soon  be  a  good  demand  for  them, 
as  being  the  most  convenient  and  suitable. 

"  In  building  a  fence  on  the  side  of  the  garden,  we  dug  a  trench 
some  two  and  a  half  feet  deep,  set  the  posts  on  the  bottom,  and  filled 
around  them  with  loose  stones  to  the  top  of  the  ground,  then  filled 
the  spaces  between  with  stones  thrown  in  at  random,  mainly  to  ths 
depth  of  a  foot  or  more,  and,  after  covering  with  turf,  filled  up  with 
dirt  This  has  been  a  good  and  useful  piece  of  work,  for,  beside 
draining  the  land,  it  preserves  the  fence  from  the  action  of  frost, 
and  in  a  measure  from  decay." 

In  commenting  on  this  statement  of  Mr.  Calkins,  the 
editor  of  the  Country  Gentleman  says : 

"We  have  practiced  this  mode  for  many  years,  before  the  intro- 
duction of  tile.  When  stones  are  on  the  ground  and  abundant,  they 
maybe  used  to  advantage.  The  objections  to  their  use  are  two: 
first,  the  earth  is  liable  to  work  down  among  the  stones,  or  c  cave  in,' 
where  streams  run  across  the  surface  in  heavy  rains  or  in  thaws,  and 
find  their  way  down  through  the  soil ;  second,  the  increased  labor 
of  digging  a  drain  wide  enough  to  lay  the  stones  well,  will  pay  for 
tile,  if  not  very  remote  from  a  tile  manufactory. 

"The  mode  of  laying  must  vary  with  the  soil.  Those  soils  which 
approach  quicksands  in  character,  render  it  almost  impossible  to  use 
stone  successfully.  When  they  are  saturated  with  water,  they  will 
find  their  way  among  the  stones  through  every  avenue — at  the  top, 
bottom  and  sides.  It  is  rare  that  such  drains  endure  many  seasons 
uninjured.  The  best  security  for  them  is  to  lay,  first,  flat  stones  on 
the  bottom  (or  hard,  durable  boards  or  slabs),  to  prevent  the  cobble 
stones  from  sinking  into  the  earth;  to  use  as  small  stones  as  practi- 
cable against  the  sides  of  the  ditch,  so  that  the  interstices  there  may 
be  too  small  for  the  soil  easily  to  enter;  and  to  cover  the  top  with 


254  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

very  small  stone,  and  then  very  coarse  gravel,  or  with  flat  stone,  for 
the  same  object,  before  the  straw  or  inverted  sods  preceding  the 
earth  covering  are  applied.  In  stiff  or  clayey  soils,  the  earth  rarely 
falls  among  the  stones,  even  when  little  precaution  is  taken.  After 
practicing  underdraining  with  stone  on  such  lands  for  many  years 
with  entire  success,  we  had  occasion  to  adopt  the  same  mode  in  an- 
other district  of  country,  where  the  soil  was  light  and  much  more 
sandy.  The  first  spring  destroyed  the  value  of  most  of  them  by  the 
caving  in  of  the  soil,  and  this  evil  was  only  prevented  effectually,  by 
covering  the  stone  filling  either  with  flat  stones,  gravel,  or  hardwood 
slabs,  before  applying  the  earth  at  the  top. 

"  As  a  general  rule,  we  would  not  recommend  the  use  of  cobble 
stone,  except  in  soils  of  considerable  tenacity. 

"  The  importance  of  a  good  drain  under  every  post  fence,  is  not 
generally  understood,  and  we  are  glad  to  see  the  subject  alluded  to 
by  our  correspondent.  Wherever  post  holes  retain  water,  they  are 
sure  to  be  heaved  by  frost,  and  the  fence  thrown  out  of  shape ; 
and  the  posts  can  not  last  long,  where  they  are  alternately  subjected 
to  water  soaking  and  drying.  But  if  all  the  water  which  falls,  passes 
immediately  down  into  the  ditch,  it  can  not  lie  in  contact  with  the 
posts  long  enough  to  soak  them,  and  as  a  consequence,  they  must 
remain  perpetually  dry,  and  last  for  a  long  period.  Kobert  B.  How- 
land,  of  Union  Springs,  New  York,  who  has  used  Pratt' s  ditcher 
with  success,  found  it  cheaper  to  cut  ditch  with  this  machine, 
in  which  to  set  the  posts  for  a  fence,  than  simply  to  dig  the  post 
holes  by  hand,  and  he  thus  attained  all  the  advantages  of  drainage, 
beside  a  practice  well  worth  copying. 

"A  single  suggestion  on  the  efficacy  of  underdraining,  on  lands 
that  do  not  at  all  appear  to  need  it.  ]t  is  a  very  good  rule  for  deter- 
mining its  necessity,  to  observe  whether  water  will  stand  in  holes 
dug  two  or  three  feet,  for  this  purpose.  If  the  subsoil  is  porous, 
the  water  will  immediately  sink  away,  and  ditches  would  be  wholly 
useless.  But  if  water  will  stand  forty-eight  hours  in  the  holes, 
draining  is  necessary  to  relieve  the  subsoil  of  this  cold  and  chilling 
mass  which  fills  it. 

"  Now,  if  the  surplus  water  in  the  soil  and  subsoil,  at  the  wettest 
period,  is  only  equal  to  a  depth  of  two  inches,  then  for  a  ten  acre 
field  it  would  amount  to  more  then  seven  thousand  hogsheads.  Sup- 
pose, therefore,  that  this  field  has  a  slope,  so  as  to  give  it  what  many 
would  suppose  a  natural  drainage — '  not  needing  any  ditching ' — 
'  dry  enough  already  ' — then,  in  getting  rid  of  these  seven  thousand 


1       V 

STONE    DRAINS.  255 

hogsheads  of  hurtful  water,  it  must,  every  gill  of  it,  soak,  drop 
by  drop,  from  one  particle  of  earth  to  another,  until  it  all  passes 
slowly  down,  almost  imperceptibly,  from  one  side  of  the  field  to  the 
other.  No  wonder  that  days,  and  even  weeks,  are  required  to  com- 
plete the  process,  and  to  render  the  land  dry  enough  to  become  fri- 
able and  fit  to  receive  seed,  and  promote  the  extension  of  the  young 
roots  of  crops.  No,  give  this  field  a  smooth,  tubular  channel  of  tile, 
for  every  two  roads  of  its  whole  surface,  the  shortest  way  down  the 
slope ;  the  water  in  the  soil  then  has  only  about  one  rod  to  soak 
through  the  soil  before  reaching  one  of  these  drains,  and  most  of  it 
much  less  than  a  rod.  When  it  reaches  them,  it  shoots  rapidly  down 
the  smooth  descending  tube,  and  in  a  few  minutes  has  passed  the 
boundary  of  the  field,  instead  of  being  otherwise  compelled  to  soak 
its  weary  way  the  whole  forty  or  fifty  rods,  or  entire  breadth  of  the 
field.  This  rapid  discharge  reduces  the  soil  to  dryness  in  so  short 
a  time,  as  to  surprise  those  who  have  never  before  witnessed  it,  and 
to  lead  to  the  common  supposition  that  the  simple  statement  of  the 
practical  advantages  of  thorough  underdraining,  by  those  who  have 
given  it  a  trial,  are  wild  exaggerations." 

"Where  flat  stones  can  readily  be  procured — in  places 
•where  bowlder  or  cobble  stone  abound — a  combination  of 
the  two  will  make  the  best  drain. 

The  most  common  way,  and  usually  the  best,  for  fill- 
ing stone  drains,  where  the  stone  are  nearly  round,  is 
made  by  just  laying  a  row  of  small  stones  on  each  side 
of  the  bottom,  leaving  an  open  channel  between  them 
about  three  inches  wide,  and  then  covering  this  channel 
with  flat  stones,  and  filling  the  ditch  with  small  ones  promis- 
cuously thrown  in,  to  within  about  15  or  18  inches  of  the 
surface,  so  as  to  be  below  the  reach  of  the  plow — and  the 
remainder  with  earth.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  remark 
that  the  upper  surface  of  the  stone  must  be  either  cov- 
ered with  coarse  gravel  or  small  flat  stone,  and  then  with 
straw  or  inverted  sods,  to  exclude  the  earth  from  the 
stones;  and  if  the  soil  is  nearly  free  from  clay,  more  care 
in  this  respect  will  be  needful — and  perhaps  a  covering 
of  hardwood  slabs  will  be  necessary  to  keep  the  earth  in 


256 


LAND   DRAINAGE. 


its  place.  If  the  bottom  of  the  drain  inclines  to  quick- 
sand, a  layer  of  flat  stones  must  be  first  laid  on  the  bot- 
tom. We  mention  this  common  mode  of  constructing 
stone  drains,  in  order  to  show  the  superiority  of  the  flat 
stones  spoken  of  by  our  correspondent.  The  chief  objection 
to  the  mode  just  described,  is  the  necessity  of  cutting  a  ditch 
nearly  a  foot  wide  at  the  bottom,  to  allow  laying  the  channel. 
The  flat  stones,  when  they  can  be  procured  in  any  quantity, 
on  the  contrary,  obviate  the  labor  of  cutting  a  wide  ditch  ; 
the  channel  being  constructed  by  plac- 
ing three  flat  stones  together,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  29.  The  bottom  of 
the  ditch  is  cut  with  a  pointed  spade, 
so  as  to  have  an  angular  trough ;  flat 
stones  and  then  selected,  all  of  the 
same  width,  and  fitted  into  and  meet- 
ing each  other  at  the  bottom,  and 
then  covered  by  a  third  flat  stone, 
reaching  across  them.  The  ditch 
above  this  is  partly  filled  with  irregu- 
FIG.  29.— THE  TRIAXGU-  ]ar  fragments  of  stone,  and  covered 

as  already  described. 

A  still  better  way,  where  the  earth  is  hard  and  the 
quantity  of  water  not  large,  is  as  follows :  The  ditch  is 
cut  with  the  narrowest  kind  of  spade — a  mode  familiar  to 
English  ditchers,  and  which  they  execute  with  great  ex- 
pedition. Flat  stone,  without  regard  to  their  exact  width, 
are  placed  against  the  sides,  open  at  the  top.  Into  this 
opening,  one  or  more  thicker  flat  stones  are  thrust,  as 
represented  in  the  cut,  and  the  drain  then  filled  as  before 
mentioned.  The  advantage  of  this  mode  is  in  obviating 
the  necessity  of  selecting  the  stones,  as  almost  any  width 
will  answer. 

The  last  two  modes,  if  well  made,  will  last  as  long  as 


STONE    DRAINS.  257 

tile  drains  ;  as  the  earth  can  not  fall  into  them  from  the 
sides,  nor  rise  from  the  bottom,  even  if  of  a  quicksand 
nature ;  and  in  the  last  described,  the  stones  being 
mostly  vertical,  admit  the  free  descent  of  the  water  from 
above. l 

A  correspondent  of  the  Country  Gentleman,  writing 
from  Monroe  county,  N.  Y.,  says : 

"I  have  made  several  hundred  rods,  and  make  more  or  less  every 
year,  and  have  made  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  The  best  time  is  in 
the  spring,  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  settled,  especially  where  there 
is  hard-pan,  as  that  then  works  the  easiest.  My  mode  is  to  com- 
mence with  team  and  plow — cut  two  furrows,  one  from  the  other — 
then  put  the  plow  in  the  center,  and  cut  deep  as  I  can — then  shovel 
out  and  dig  from  three  to  five  feet  deep,  and  even  more  where  I  cross 
ridges — the  bottom  ten  inches  wide.  In  filling,  I  take  flat  stone  and 
set  them  on  the  edge  on  the  outer  side  of  the  ditch,  and  let  the  tops 
come  together,  forming  A — fill  in  with  small  stones  up  to  within  eigh- 
teen inches  of  the  top  or  surface.  Then  take  litter  or  straw  and  cover 
the  stone  lightly,  and  then  take  the  plow  and  fill  up  rounding,  as  it 
will  settle  more  or  less.  Some  of  mine  have  paid  expenses  the  first 
crop.  I  have  drains  that  were  made  in  1838,  and  answer  their  pur- 
pose well  yet" 

i 
But   this   method   of  underdraining 

with  stone,  will  be  very  much  improved 
by  laying  a  flat  stone  in  the  bottom  of 
the  drain,  as  represented  in  Fig.  30. 

Mr.  L.  Griswold,  of  Litchfield,  Con- 
necticut, says : 

"  This  last  fall  I  have  drained  four  acres  of 
my  eight  acre  meadow,  in  this  way,  viz  :  We  lay 
out  the  short  drains  forty  feet  apart — though 
we  vary  from  this  rule  some;  when  it  comes 
near  a  wet  hollow  we  go  through  that — we  cut  FIG.  so.— THE  COUPLED 
them  three  and  a  half  feet  deep,  two  feet  wide  STONB  DucT' 

at  the  top,  and  slant  down  to  six  inches  on  the  bottom.     We  scrape 

l  J.  J.  Thomas,  in  Rural  Register. 

23 


258  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

the  mud  from  the  bottom  perfectly  clean,  so  that  it  is  hard,  like  rock. 
This  thoroughly  done,  we  begin  to  fill  with  small  round  stone,  tak- 
ing care  that  no  one  stone  is  large  enough  to  reach  across,  for  the 
first  layer,  and  so  on  five  or  six  inches ;  then  the  cobble  and  broken 
stones  may  be  thrown  in  with  less  care,  extending  up  to  a  hight  of 
eighteen  inches ;  the  little  slivers  from  the  broken  stone,  and  such 
like,  we  scatter  alone  on  the  top  to  fill  up  the  cavities ;  then  place 
inverted  turf  on  snugly,  and  press  it  down  with  our  feet.  The  dirt 
dug  from  the  ditch  is  then  filled  in,  and  it  is  finished. 

"  The  whole  cost  is  •  about  sixty  cents  per  rod,  including  drawing 
the  stone,  which  pays  by  getting  them  out  of  the  way.  I  am  well 
convinced  that  these  drains  will  continue  to  act  well,  and  I  can  not 
see  why  stone  is  not  quite  as  good,  if  not  better  than  tile,  and  it 
costs  something  less  here." 

Almost  anywhere  in  Ohio,  the  best  of  tile  drains  can 
be  made  at  a  considerably  less  expense  than  sixty  cents 
per  rod;  whatever  merit  may  attach  to  Mr.  Griswold's 
method,  there  will  be  one  insuperable  objection  to  it  in 
the  West,  on  account  of  the  cost. 

In  locations  where  the  clay  is  some- 
what destitute  of  the  quality  of  stiff- 
ness, and  is  inclined  to  crumble,  it  may 
be  advantageous  to  protect  the  sides, 
as  in  the  drain  represented  by  Fig.  31. 
This  drain  is  made  by  laying  a  flat 
stone  across  the  entire  bottom  ;  then 
a  flat  stone  against  each  side,  and  an- 
other covering  the  last  two— the  cov- 
ering stone  should,  if  practicable,  be  as 
FIG.  si.  wide  as  the  ditch.  Rough  boards,  or 

"  slabs"  from  the  sawmill  will  answer  an  excellent  purpose 
as  covers. 

Considerable  draining  with  stone  has  been  done  in  Ohio, 
from  a  belief  that  it  was  cheaper  and  more  permanent  than 
almost  any  other  kind  of  drain.  Farmers  generally  have 
teams  of  their  own ;  and  there  often  occur  "  odd  half 


STONE   DRAINS.  259 

days,"  or  times  when  the  team  and  hands,  according  to 
their  system  of  farming,  could  not  be  profitably  employed, 
and  they  say  that  during  such  times  stones  may  be  gath- 
ered, drawn  to  the  proper  field  and  distributed  along  the 
line  of  the  contemplated  drains ;  and  in  this  way  the  stones 
are  place  in  readiness  on  the  ground  at  no  cost,  or  at  most 
a  comparatively  small  cost.  This  may  be  true  in  certain 
cases,  but  surely  no  man  would  undertake  to  drain  his 
neighbor's  field,  and  gather,  draw  and  distribute  the  stones 
as  mere  pastime ;  and  in  estimating  the  cost  of  drains,  no 
item  should  be  omitted,  however  trifling.  A  man  pur- 
chases a  farm  in  the  wilderness,  and  during  the  "  odd  half 
days,"  gets  out,  and  draws  together,  the  timber  for  a  new 
house — in  the  estimate  of  the  cost  of  the  house  would  this 
form  TIO  item  of  expense  ?  "  Time  is  money,"  and  the 
time  expended  in  preparatory  measures  is  just  so  much 
money  expended — that,  farmer  has  certainly  not  adopted 
the  best  system  of  farming,  who  can  command  sufficient 
leisure  to  gather,  draw,  and  distribute  stone  for  drains, 
without  regarding  it  as  an  important  item  in  the  cost  of 
drains. 

Hon.  John  Howell,  of  Clark  county,  Ohio,  has  upward 
of  a  thousand  rods  of  stone  drains  on  his  farm.  They 
are  28  to  30  inches  deep,  and  filled  to  the  depth  of  10 
to  12  inches  with  stone.  The  stone  were  brought  a  dis- 
tance of  one  and  an  eighth  mile.  The  cost  of  the  drains 
was  47  cents  per  rod,  exclusive  of  the  boarding  furnished 
the  hands. 

Drawing  and  distributing  stone,      -    -    -    -    27  cents  per  rod. 

Digging  and  filling  drains,  ......       10    "        "     " 

Laying  stone  in  drains, 10"        "     " 

Total  cost,    ....       47    " 
Mr.  Howell  assured  us  that  tile  drains — the  tile  being 


260  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

furnished  at  a  manufactory  within  the  country — would  have 
cost,  completed,  82  cents  per  rod  only,  instead  of  47,  as  the 
stone  drains  did.  In  fact,  he  says  the  cost  should  be  put 
down  at  30  cents,  because  he  filled  the  drains  mainly  by 
plowing  the  ground  in  that  was  dug  out,  and  he  has  not 
taken  the  cost  of  plowing  into  account. 

The  subjoined  experience  of  the  editor  of  the  JV.  E. 
Farmer,  may  be  of  much  value  to  those  who  are  hesitat- 
ing between  two  opinions,  or  which  to  choose,  stone  or 
tile: 

"We  have  plenty  of  stones  for  the  purpose  of  drainage,  and  have 
constructed  many  drains  of  them,  in  both  dry  and  sandy  loams. 
They  operated  well  for  a  time,  but  the  first  star  mole  that  made  his 
way  to  one  of  them  left  an  inviting  opening  for  the  next  drenching 
shower  to  follow.  This,  of  course,  was  repeated  a  good  many  times 
and  in  a  good  many  places  during  the  year,  and  the  work  of  destruc- 
tion was  begun.  Unless  laid  very  deep,  the  frost  also  deranges  the 
upper  portion  of  them,  and  lets  the  fine  soil  down.  We  have,  there- 
fore, great  doubt  whether  it  is  not  best  to  use  tile  in  the  first  in- 
stance. It  costs  much  less  to  lay  tile  than  stone,  and  where  the 
work  is  once  done,  and  the  tile  entirely  below  the  frost,  a  drain  is 
made  of  great  permanence  and  utility." 

In  some  places  stone   drains   are 
made  by  placing  a  flat  stone  on  the 
/        £  bottom,  then  one  on  the  side,  and  a 
;          f;   third  one  in  a  diagonal  direction  from 
-x :-—-,-/„  the  bottom,  as  represented  in  Fig. 

S^T^V  32.     This  is  called  an  Irish  drain. 

rv.icv/  They  are  filled  either  with  cobble  or 

yv^'  small  stones,  10  or  12  inches  deep, 

.  ifjf  like  the  other  stone  drains,  or  else 

may  be  filled  entirely  with  the  mate- 
rial which  was  thrown  out  in  making 
FIG-  32-  the  ditch. 

IRISH  DRAIN. 

Stone  drains  made  according  to  any  of  the   systems 


TILE    DRAINS.  261 

described  are  peculiarly  liable  to  be  obstructed,  because 
there  is  no  regular  water-way,  and  the  flow  of  the  water 
must,  of  course,  be  very  slow,  impeded  as  it  is  by  fric- 
tion at  all  points  with  the  irregular  surfaces. 

Sand,  and  other  obstructing  substances,  which  find  their 
way,  more  or  less,  into  all  drains,  are  deposited  among 
the  stones — the  water  having  no  force  of  current  suffi- 
cient to  carry  them  forward — and  the  drain  is  soon  filled 
up  at  some  point,  and  ruined. 

Miles  of  such  drains  have  been  laid  on  many  New 
England  farms,  at  shoal  depths,  of  two  or  two  and  a  half 
feet,  and  have  in  a  few  years  failed.  For  a  time,  their 
effect,  to  those  unaccustomed  to  underdrainage,  seems 
almost  miraculous.  The  wet  field  becomes  dry,  the  wild 
grass  gives  place  to  clover  and  herdsgrass,  and  the  experi- 
ment is  pronounced  successful.  After  a  few  years,  how- 
ever, the  wild  grass  re-appears,  the  water  again  stands  on 
the  surface,  and  it  is  ascertained,  on  examination,  that 
the  drain  is  in  some  place  packed  solid  with  earth,  and  is 
filled  with  stagnant  water. 

The  fault  is  by  no  means  wholly  in  the  material.  In 
clay  or  hard-pan,  such  a  drain  may  be  made  durable, 
with  proper  care,  but  it  must  be  laid  deep  enough  to  be 
beyond  the  effect  of  the  treading  of  cattle  and  of  loaded 
teams,  and  the  common  action  of  frost. 1 

TILE   DRAINS. 

We  have  already  alluded  to  the  fact2  that  pipe  tile  was 
in  use,  as  conduits  for  underground  ducts  or  causeways, 
in  France,  as  early  as  the  year  1600.  From  some  cause, 
y/hich  we  have  failed  to  discover,  in  our  agricultural  lite- 
rary researches,  they  were  discontinued ;  and  it  is  exceed- 
ingly doubtful  if  they  were  used  in  England  previous  to 

1  French's  Farm  Drainage.  2  Ante,  page  7. 


262 


LAND   DRAINAGE. 


the  present  century.  In  Elkington's  treatise  on  land 
draining,  edited  by  Johnstone,  and  first  published  in  Lon- 
don, in  May,  1797,  are  described  "  draining  bricks."  On 
page  41  we  find :  "  When  flat  stones  can  be  got,  they  are 
preferable  to  brick ;  but  there  are  several  kinds  of  brick, 
beside  the  common  sort,  invented  and  used  solely  for  the 
purpose  of  draining,  in  several  parts  of  England,  where 
the  expense  of  stone  would  become  greater.  Of  these, 
the  figures  in  the  annexed  plate  are  some  of  the  best 
kinds.  When  small  drains  are  wanted,  and  when  the 
water  is  to  be  conveyed  to  a  house,  etc.,  Fig.  38,  is 


FIG.  35. 


commonly  made  use  of.  For  larger  drains,  Figs.  34  and 
35  are  well  adapted,  especially,  Fig.  35,  lately  invented 
by  Mr.  Couchman,  of  Bosworth  Temple,  in  Warwickshire, 
and  with  which  Mr.  Elkington  has  laid  several  drains. 
They  are  laid  single,  without  one  reversed  under,  for 
when  that  is  done,  the  water  running  on  the  under  one, 
occasions  a  kind  of  sludge,  which  in  tiiLe  becomes  so  in- 
crusted  on  it,  as  totally  to  obstruct  the  passage  of  the 
water,  and  render  the  work  useless  in  a  few  years.  In 
clay  bottoms,  they  may  be  laid  single,  or  without  anything 
under;  but  in  soft,  sandy  bottoms,  a  common  building 


TILE   DRAINS.  263 

brick  should  be  laid  under  each  side,  to  prevent  them 
from  sinking  down,  and  should  be  so  laid  as  to  form  a 
regular  arch  (i.  e.,  the  side  bricks  laid  with  an  equal 
hight),  the  better  to  support  the  pressure  above  from 
breaking  them  or  causing  them  to  slip." 

The  brick  represented  by  Figs.  33  and  35,  were  called 
soughing  brick.  That  part  of  a  drain  forming  the  conduit 
for  water,  was  termed  the  "sough"  or  "surf,"  and  as 
these  brick  formed  a  conduit,  they  were  accordingly 
termed  "  soughing  brick."  The  only  ones  we  ever  saw 
were  on  the  farm  of  Norton  S.  Townshend  (formerly  Pres- 
ident of  the  Ohio  State  Board  of  Agriculture),  in  Lorain 
county,  Ohio.  That  pattern  of  soughing  brick  represented 
by  Fig.  35,  had  a  series  of  "eyelet"  holes,  as  they  were 
termed,  on  the  upper  portion  of  the  brick,  in  order  to 
afford  a  means  of  ingress  for  the  water  to  get  into  the 
drain. 

It  is,  perhaps,  unnecessary  to  mention,  that  these  brick 
or  tile  are  made  of  clay,  sun-dried,  and  burned  the  same 
as  other  brick.  The  drain  brick  represented  by  Figs. 
33-4-5,  have  long  since  been  entirely  abandoned  by  per- 
sons draining  on  a  large  scale.  For  a  long  time,  the 
"horseshoe"  tile  was  more  in  use  than  any  other  (See 

Fig.  36).  These  tiles 
were  made  by  hand  ; 


Tile  or  Board].  out,    somewhat   after 

the  fashion  that  housewives  roll  out  dough,  and  then  were 
pressed  by  hand  over  a  cylindrical  substance,  and  set  away 
to  dry.  Of  course,  they  were  expensive  ;  at  present,  they 
are  made  by  machines.  Many  very  excellent  drainers  in 
Ohio  and  New  York,  are  partial  to  the  horseshoe  tile, 
because  less  care  is  required  in  laying  them.  We  regret 
to  state,  that  a  very  large  proportion  of  tile,  used  at  pres- 


264  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

ent,  are  of  this  form — a  form  which  we  have  long  since 
considered  almost  the  worst  possible,  and  have  not  hesi- 
tated to  express  this  opinion  on  all  occasions — in  news- 
paper articles,  in  lectures,  and  in  ordinary  conversation. 
We  had  not  read  Gisborne's  Essays  on  Agriculture,  until 
December,  1860,  and  therefore  could  not  have  been  influ- 
enced in  our  opinion  by  his  writings,  but  had  based  our 
opinion  upon  our  knowledge  of  hydraulics  and  hydro- 
statics. But  as  Gisborne  presents  the  views  entertained 
by  us,  in  this  respect,  based  upon  experience  and  obser- 
vation, we  prefer  to  quote  his  language  : 

"  We  shall  shock  some  and  surprise  many  of  our  readers,  when  \ve 
state  confidently  that,  in  average  soils,  and,  still  more,  in  those  which 
are  inclined  to  be  tender,  horseshoe  tiles  form  the  weakest  and  most 
failing  conduit  which  has  ever  been  used  for  a  deep  drain.  It  is  so, 
however;  and  a  little  thought,  even  if  we  had  no  experience,  will 
tell  us  that  it  must  be  so.  A  doggerel  song,  quite  destitute  of  hu- 
mor, informs  us  that  tiles  of  this  sort  were  used  in  1760,  at  Grandes- 
burg  Hall,  in  Suffolk,  by  Mr.  Charles  Lawrence,  the  owner  of  the 
estate.  The  earliest  of  which  we  had  experience  were  of  large  area 
and  of  weak  form.  Cqnstant  failures  resulted  from  their  use,  and 
the  cause  was  investigated;  many  of  the  tiles  were  found  to  be 
choked  up  with  clay,  and  many  to  be  broken  longitudinally  through 
the  crown.  For  the  first  evil,  two  remedies  were  adopted ;  a  sole  of 
slate,  of  wood,  or  of  its  own  material,  was  sometimes  placed  under 
the  tile,  but  the  more  usual  practice  was  to  form  them  with  club-feet. 
To  meet  the  case  of  longitudinal  fracture,  the  tiles  were  reduced  in 
size,  and  very  much  thickened  in  proportion  to  their  area.  The  first 
of  these  remedies  was  founded  on  an  entirely  mistaken,  and  the  sec- 
ond on  no  conception  at  all  of  the  cause  of  the  evil  to  which  they 
were  respectively  applied.  The  idea  was,  that  this  tile,  standing  on 
narrow  feet,  and  pressed  by  the  weight  of  the  refilled  soil,  sank  into 
the  floor  of  the  drain ;  whereas,  in  fact,  the  floor  of  the  drain  rose 
into  the  tile.  Any  one  at  all  conversant  with  collieries  is  aware  that 
when  a  strait  work  (which  is  a  small  subterranean  tunnel  six  feet 
high  and  four  feet  wide,  or  thereabout)  is  driven  in  coal,  the  rising 
of  the  floor  is  a  more  usual  and  far  more  inconvenient  occurrence 
than  the  falling  of  the  roof:  the  weight  of  the  two  sides  squeezes  up 


TILE   DRAINS.  265 

the  floor.  We  have  seen  it  formed  into  a  very  decided  arch  without 
fracture.  Exactly  a  similar  operation  takes  place  in  the  drain.  No 
one  had  till  recently  dreamed  of  forming  a  tile  drain,  the  bottom  of 
which  a  man  was  not  to  approach  personally  within  twenty  inches 
or  two  feet.  To  no  one  had  it  then  occurred  that  width  at  the  bot- 
tom of  a  drain  was  a  great  evil.  For  the  convenience  of  the  operator 
the  drain  was  formed  with  nearly  perpendicular  sides,  of  a  width  in 
which  he  could  stand  and  work  conveniently,  shovel  the  bottom  level 
with  his  ordinary  spade,  and  lay  the  tiles  by  his  hand;  the  result 
was  a  drain  with  nearly  perpendicular  sides,  and  a  wide  bottom. 
No  sort  of  clay,  particularly  when  softened  by  water  standing  on  it 
or  running  over  it,  could  fail  to  rise  under  such  circumstances ;  and 
the  deeper  the  drain  the  greater  the  pressure  and  the  more  certain 
the  rising.  A  horseshoe  tile,  which  may  be  a  tolerably  secure  con- 
duit in  a  drain  of  two  feet,  in  one  of  four  feet  becomes  an  almost 
certain  failure.  As  to  the  longitudinal  fracture— not  only  is  the  tile 
subject  to  be  broken  by  one  of  those  slips  which  are  so  troublesome 
in  deep  draining,  and  to  which  the  lightly-filled  material,  even  when 
the  drain  is  completed,  offers  an  imperfect  resistance,  but  the  con- 
stant pressure  together  of  the  sides,  even  when  it  does  not  produce 
a  fracture  of  the  soil,  catches  hold  of  the  feet  of  the  tile,  and  breaks 
it  through  the  crown.  Consider  the  case  of  a  drain  formed  in  clay 
when  dry,  the  conduit  a  horseshoe  tile.  When  the  clay  expands  with 
moisture,  it  necessarily  presses  on  the  tile,  and  breaks  it  through  the 
crown,  its  weakest  part1  When  the  Regent's  Park  was  first  drained, 
large  conduits  were  in  fashion,  and  they  were  made  circular  by 
placing  one  horseshoe  tile  upon  another.  It  would  be  difficult  to 
invent  a  weaker  conduit.  On  re-drainage,  innumerable  instances 
were  found  in  which  the  upper  tile  was  broken  through  the  crown, 
and  had  dropped  into  the  lower.  Next  came  the  Q  form,  tile  and 
sole  in  one,  Fig.  37,  and  much  reduced  in  size — a  great  advance ; 


I 


FIG.  37. — HORSESHOE  TILE  AND  SOLE  IN  ONE. 

and  when  some  skillful  operator  had  laid  this  tile  bottom  upward, 
we  were  evidently  on  the  eve  of  pipes.     For  the  Q  tile  a  round  pipe 

1  The  tile  has  been  said,  by  great  authorities,  to  be  broken  by  contraction, 
under  some  idea  that  the  clay  envelopes  the  tile  and  presses  it  when  it  con- 
tracts. That  is  nonsense.  The  contraction  would  liberate  the  tile.  Drive 

24 


266  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

molded  with  a  flat  bottomed  solid  sole  O  is  now  generally  substi- 
tuted, and  is  an  improvement;  but  is  not  equal  to  pipes  and  collars, 
nor  generally  cheaper  than  they  are. 

"  Almost  forty  years  ago,  small  pipes  for  land  drainage  were  used 
concurrently  by  the  following  parties,  who  still  had  no  knowledge 
of  each  other's  operations : — Sir  T.  Wichcote,  of  Asgarby,  Lincoln- 
shire (these,  we  believe,  were  socket-pipes) — Mr.  R.  Harvey,  at  Ep- 
ping — Mr.  Boulton,  at  Great  Tew,  in  Oxfordshire  (these  were  porce- 
lain 1-inch  pipes,  made  by  Wedgwood,  at  Etruria) — and  Mr.  John 
Kead,  at  Horsemonden,  in  Kent.  Most  of  these  pipes  were  made 
with  eyelet-holes,  to  admit  the  water.  Pipes  for  thorough  draining 
were  incidentally  mentioned  in  the  Journal  of  the  Agricultural  So- 
ciety for  May,  1843;  but  they  excited  no  general  attention  till  they 
were  exhibited  by  John  Read  (the  inventor  of  the  stomach-pump), 
at  the  Agricultural  Show  at  Derby  in  that  year.  A  medal  was 
awarded  to  the  exhibitor.  Mr.  Parkes  was  one  of  the  judges,  and 
brought  the  pipes  to  the  special  notice  of  the  Council,  and  was  in- 
structed by  them  to  investigate  their  use  and  merits.  From  this 
moment  inventions  and  improvements  huddle  in  upon  us  faster  than 
we  can  describe  them.  Collars  to  connect  the  pipes,  a  new  form  of 
drain,  tools  of  new  forms — particularly  one  by  which  the  pipe  and 
collar  are  laid  with  wonderful  rapidity  and  precision,  by  an  ope- 
rator who  stands  on  the  top  of  the  drain — and  pipe-and-collar-mak- 
ing  machines  (stimulated  by  repeated  prizes  offered  by  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society),  which  furnish  those  articles  on  a  scale  of 
unexampled  cheapness.  For  all  these  inventions  and  adaptations 
we  are  mainly  indebted  to  Mr.  Parkes.  The  economical  result  is, 
a  drain  4  feet  6  inches  deep,  excavated  and  refilled  at  from  l\d.  to 
2d  per  yard — the  workmen  earning  12s.  and  upward  per  week ;  and 
333^  yards  of  collared  1^-inch  pipes  for  18s. — being  12s.  per  thou- 
sand for  the  pipes,  and  6s.  per  thousand  for  the  collars ;  larger  sizes 
at  a  proportionate  advance.  We  shall  best  exemplify  the  improve- 
ments to  our  readers  by  describing  the  drain.  It  is  wrought  in  the 
shape  of  a  wedge,  brought  in  at  the  bottom  to  the  narrowest  limit 
which  will  admit  the  collar  by  tools  admirably  adapted  to  that  pur- 
pose. The  foot  of  the  operator  is  never  within  20  inches  of  the  floor 

a  stake  into  wet  clay ;  and  when  the  clay  is  dry,  observe  whether  it  clips 
the  stake  tighter  or  has  released  it,  and  you  will  no  longer  have  any  doubt 
whether  expansion  or  contraction  breaks  the  tile.  Shrink  is  a  better  word 
than  contract. 


TILE   DRAINS.  267 

of  the  drain ;  his  tools  are  made  of  iron  plated  on  steel,  and  never 
lose  their  sharpness,  even  when  worn  to  the  stumps  ;  because,  as  the 
softer  material,  the  iron,  wears  away,  the  sharp  steel  edge  is  always 
prominent.  The  sloping  sides  of  the  drain  are  self-sustaining,  and 
the  pressure  on  its  floor  is  reduced  to  a  minimum ;  the  circular  form 
of  the  pipe  and  collar,  see  Fig.  38,  enables  them  to  sustain  any  pres- 


FIG.  38.— PIPE  AND  COLLAR. 

sure  to  which  they  can  be  subjected;  the  adaptation  of  the  bed  in 
which  they  lie,  to  their  size,  prevents  their  wriggling.  They  form  a 
continuous  conduit,  and  whose  continuity  can  not  be  broken  except 
by  great  violence.  However  steep  the  drain,  the  water  running  in 
the  pipe  can  never  wash  up  its  floor.  They  offer  almost  insuperable 
impediments  to  the  entrance  of  vermin,  roots,1  or  anything  except 

1  I  am  afraid  that  I  must  materially  modify  this  expression,  as  far  as 
roots  are  concerned.  The  words,  "  almost  insuperable  impediments/'  are 
not  applicable.  My  own  experience,  as  to  roots,  in  connection  with  deep 
pipe  draining,  is  as  follows  :-^-I  have  never  known  roots  to  obstruct  a  pipe 
through  which  there  was  not  a  perennial  stream.  The  flow  of  water  in 
summer  and  early  autumn  appears  to  furnish  the  attraction.  I  have  never 
discovered  that  the  roots  of  any  esculent  vegetable  have  obstructed  a  pipe. 
The  trees  which,  by  my  own  personal  observation,  I  have  found  to  be  most 
dangerous,  have  been  red  willow,  black  Italian  poplar,  alder,  ash,  and 
broad-leaved  elm.  I  have  many  alders  in  close  contiguity  with  important 
drains,  and,  though  I  have  never  convicted  one,  I  can  not  doubt  that  they 
are  dangerous.  Oak,  and  black  and  white  thorns,  I  have  not  detected,  nor 
do  I  suspect  them.  The  guilty  trees  have  in  every  instance  been  young  and 
free  growing;  I  have  never  convicted  an  adult.  These  remarks  apply 
solely  to  my  own  observation,  and  may  of  course  be  much  extended  by  that 
of  other  agriculturists.  I  know  an  instance  in  which  a  perennial  spring  of 
very  pure  and  (I  believe)  soft  water  is  conveyed  in  socket  pipes  to  a  paper 
mill.  Every  junction  of  two  pipes  is  carefully  fortified  with  cement.  The 
only  object  of  cover  being  protection  from  superficial  injury  and  from  frost, 
the  pipes  are  laid  not  far  below  the  sod.  Year  by  year  these  pipes  are 
stopped  by  roots.  Trees  are  very  capricious  in  this  matter.  I  was  told  by 
the  late  Sir  R.  Peel,  that  he  sacrificed  two  young  elm  trees  in  the  park  at 
Drayton  Manor  to  a  drain  which  had  been  repeatedly  stopped  by  roots. 
The  stoppage  was  nevertheless  repeated,  and  was  then  traced  to  an  elm  tree 
far  more  distant  than  those  which  had  been  sacrificed.  Early  in  the  au- 
tum  of  1850  I  completed  the  drainage  of  the  upper  part  of  a  boggy  valley, 


268 


LAND   DRAINAGE. 


water,  and  they  are  more  portable  both  to  the  field  and  in  the  field 
than  any  other  conduit  previously  discovered  :  cheap,  light,  handy, 
secure,  efficacious." 

The  ordinary  form  of  pipe  tile  is  represented  by  Fig. 
39,  but  all  tile  having  a  tubular  form,  like  those  of  Fig.  40, 
41,  are  called  pipe  tile. 


FIG.  39.— PIPE  TILE. 


FIG.  40. — PIPE  TILE. 


FlG.  41. — OCTOGANAL  PlPE   TlLE. 


We  presume  we  shall  be  obliged  to  rest  content  with 

lying,  with  ramifications,  at  the  foot  of  marly  banks.  The  main  drains 
converge  to  a  common  outlet,  to  which  are  brought  one  3-inch  pipe  and  three 
of  4  inches  each.  They  lie  side  by  side,  and  water  flows  perennially  through 
each  of  them.  Near  to  this  outlet  did  grow  a  red  willow.  In  February, 
1852,  I  found  the  water  breaking  out  to  the  surface  of  the  ground  about  10 
yards  above  the  outlet,  and  was  at  no  loss  for  the  cause,  as  the  roots  of  the 
red  willow  showed  themselves  at  the  orifice  of  the  3-inch  and  of  two  of  the 
4-inch  pipes.  On  examination  I  found  that  a  root  had  entered  a  joint  be- 
tween two  3-inch  pipes,  and  had  traveled  5  yards  to  the  mouth  of  the  drain, 
and  9  yards  up  the  stream,  forming  a  continuous  length  of  14  yards.  The 
root  which  first  entered  had  attained  about  the  size  of  a  lady's  little  finger  ; 
and  its  ramifications  consisted  of  very  fine  and  almost  silky  fibers,  and 
would  have  cut  up  into  half  a  dozen  comfortable  boas.  The  drain  was 
completely  stopped.  The  pipes  were  not  in  any  degree  displaced.  Roots 
from  the  same  willow  had  passed  over  the  3-inch  pipes,  and  had  entered 
and  entirely  stopped  the  first  4-inch  drain,  and  had  partially  stopped  the 
second.  At  the  distance  of  about  fifty  yards  a  black  Italian  poplar,  which 
stood  on  a  bank  over  a  4-inch  drain,  had  completely  stopped  it  with  .1 
bunch  of  roots.  The  whole  of  this  had  been  the  work  of  less  than  18 
months,  including  the  depth  of  two  winter?.  A  3-inch  branch  of  the  same 


TILE   DRAINS.  269 

the  pipe  tile  for  some  years  to  come,  but  we  do  not  con- 
sider them  the  "  hight  of  perfection,"  although  they  are 
a  very  decided  improvement  on  the  horseshoe  tile.  A 
better  form,  in  our  opinion,  is  that  of  which  an  end  view 
or  section  is  represented  by  an  egg,  with  the  small  end 
down.  A  conduit  of  this  shape  affords  a  very  narrow 
channel,  when  a  small  quantity  of  water  only  is  to  be  dis- 
charged ;  but  as  the  quantity  of  water  increases  the  chan- 
nel increases  also.  We  are  well  aware  that  some  may 
deem  this  a  matter  of  very  small  importance,  if  indeed  it 
be  worthy  of  consideration  at  all.  The  importance  in  the 
form  of  the  conduit  can  not  be  better  illustrated  than  by 
citing  well  known  facts. 

It  must  be  self-evident,  and  therefore  requires  no  argu- 
ment to  prove,  that  a  body  of  water  confined  in  a  channel 
one  inch  high,  and  one  inch  wide,  will  pass  off  more  rap- 
idly than  if  spread  over  a  surface  eight  inches  wide  and 
one  eighth  of  an  inch  high.  In  the  former  case  the  water 
will  move  rapidly,  and  carry  with  it  all  the  particles  of 
sand,  clay  and  other  impurities  which  may  find  their  way 
into  the  conduit,  while  in  the  latter  case  the  resisting 
power  of  the  current  would  not  be  sufficient  to  remove 
them,  and  they  would  form  a  nucleus  for  a  permanent 
stoppage  of  the  water. 

The  California  gold  diggers  at  first  employed  the  ordin- 
ary "  box,"  or  "  square "  form,  for  a  conduit  to  carry 
off  the  water  during  the  process  of  washing  gold ;  this 
conduit  became  clogged  daily,  and  much  time  was  spent 
in  keeping  the  channel  open.  One  of  the  miners  con- 
system  runs  through  a  little  group  of  black  poplars.  This  drain  conveys  a 
full  stream  in  plashes  of  wet,  and  some  water  generally  through  the  winter 
months,  but  has  not  a  perennial  flow.  I  have  perceived  no  indication  that 
roots  have  interfered  with  this  drain.  I  draw  no  general  conclusions  from 
these  few  facts,  but  they  may  assist  those  who  have  more  extensive  experi- 
ence in  drawing  some,  which  may  be  of  use  to  drainers. — T.  G. 


270  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

structed  a  conduit  of  two  boards,  placed  together  in 
this  shape  V,  which  required  no  cleansing  or  further  care 
and  never  became  clogged  or  choked.  Instead  then  of 
having  the  widest  of  the  conduit  at  the  bottom,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  horseshoe  tile,  the  very  narrowest  possible 
should  form  the  base,  and  for  this  reason,  if  none  other, 
pipe  tile  are  to  be  preferred  to  the  horseshoe. 

Pipe  tile  are  more  readily  laid  in  the  drain  than  any 
other  kind,  for  the  reason  that  all  tiles  are  more  or  less 
warped  in  drying  and  burning,  and  where  it  is  desired  to 
made  perfect  work,  there  is  no  "  wrong-side-up "  to  them; 
they  can  be  turned  with  any  side  up,  so  as  to  make  not 
only  better  joints,  but  a  straighter  run  for  water — which  is 
very  important. 

The  best  authorities  on  the  subject  differ  widely  with 
respect  to  the  importance  of  collars  to  connect  the  pipes 
in  the  drains ;  and  as  we  do  not  think  that  they  will  be 
used  to  any  extent  in  the  country — at  least  for  some  years 
to  come — we  will  refer  our  readers  to  several  English  au- 
thorities for  views  on  this  subject.  Mr.  Gisborne  says  : 

"We  were  astounded  to  find,  at  the  conclusion  of  Mr.  Parkes, 
Newcastle  Lecture,  this  sentence:  'It  may  be  advisable  for  me  to 
say,  that  in  clays,  and  other  clean-cutting  and  firm-bottomed  soils,  I 
do  not  find  the  collars  to  be  indispensably  necessary;  although  I 
always  prefer  their  use.'  This  is  a  barefaced  treachery  to  pipes:  an 
abandonment  of  the  strongest  point  in  their  case — the  assured  con- 
tinuity of  the  conduit.  Every  one  may  see  how  very  small  a  dis- 
turbance at  their  point  of  junction  would  dissociate  two  pipes  of  one 
inch  diameter.  One  finds  a  soft  place  in  the  bottom  of  the  drain, 
and  dips  his  nose  into  it  one  inch  deep,  and  cocks  up  his  other  end. 
By  this  simple  operation  the  continuity  of  the  conduit  is  twice 
broken.  An  inch  of  lateral  motion  produces  the  same  effect.  Pipes 
of  a  larger  diameter  than  two  inches  are  generally  laid  without  col- 
ars ;  this  is  a  practice  on  which  we  do  not  look  with  much  compla- 
cency; it  is  the  compromise  between  cost  and  security,  to  which  the 
affairs  of  men  are  so  often  compelled.  No  doubt  a  conduit  from 


TILE   DRAINS.  271 

three  to  six  inches  in  diameter  is  much  less  subject  to  a  breach  in 
its  continuity  than  one  which  is  smaller;  but  when  no  collars  are 
used,  the  pipes  should  be  laid  with  extreme  care,  and  the  bed  which 
is  prepared  for  them  at  the  bottom  of  the  drain  should  be  worked  to 
their  size  and  shape  with  great  accuracy. 

"  To  one  advantage  which  is  derived  from  the  use  of  collars  we 
have  not  yet  adverted — the  increased  facility  with  which  free  water 
existing  in  the  s.oil  can  find  entrance  into  the  conduit  The  collar 
for  a  li  inch  pipe  has  a  circumference  of  three  inches.  The  whole 
space  between  the  collar  and  the  pipe  on  each  side  of  the  collar  is 
open,  and  affords  no  resistance  to  the  entrance  of  the  water ;  while 
at  the  same  time  the  superincumbent  arch  of  the  collar  protects  the 
junction  of  two  pipes  from  the  intrusion  of  particles  of  soil  We 
confess  to  some  original  misgivings  that  a  pipe  resting  only  on  an 
inch  at  each  end,  and  lying  hollow,  might  prove  weak,  and  liable  to 
fracture  by  weight  pressing  on  it  from  above ;  but  the  fear  was  illu" 
sory.  Small  particles  of  soil  trickle  down  the  sides  of  every  drain, 
and  the  first  flow  of  water  will  deposit  them  in  the  vacant  space  be- 
tween the  two  collars.  The  bottom,  if  at  all  soft,  will  also  swell  up 
into  any  vacancy.  Practically,  if  you  re-open  a  drain  well  laid  with 
pipes  and  collars,  you  will  find  them  reposing  in  a  beautiful  nidus, 
which,  when  they  are  carefully  removed,  looks  exactly  as  if  it  had 
been  molded  for  them. 

Mr.  Denton  says : 

"  The  use  of  collars  is  by  no  means  general,  although  those  who 
have  used  them  speak  highly  of  their  advantages.  Except  in  sandy 
soils,  and  in  those  that  are  subject  to  sudden  alteration  of  character, 
in  some  of  the  deposits  of  red  sandstones,  and  in  the  clayey  sub- 
soils of  the  Bagshot  sand  district,  for  instance,  collars  are  not  found 
to  be  essential  to  good  drainage.  In  the  north  of  England  they  are 
used  but  seldom,  and,  in  my  opinion,  much  less  than  they  ought  to 
be ;  but  this  opinion,  it  is  right  to  state,  is  opposed,  in  numerous  in- 
stances of  successful  drainage,  by  men  of  extensive  practice;  and 
as  every  cause  of  increased  outlay  is  to  be  avoided,  the  value  of 
collars,  as  general  appliances,. remains  an  open  question.  In  all  the 
more  porous  subsoils,  in  which  collars  have  been  used,  the  more 
successful  drainers  increase  the  size  of  the  pipes  in  the  minor  drains 
to  a  minimum  size  of  two  inches  bore." 


CHAPTER    II. 


SIZE    OF    TILE,  ETC. 

THE  size  of  tile  to  be  employed  in  underdraining  de- 
pends upon,  1,  the  amount  of  fall ;  2,  the  length  .of  the 
drain ;  3,  the  distance  between  the  drains ;  4,  the  depth 
of  the  drains. 

It  is  very  evident  that  the  greater  the  amount  of  fall, 
the  smaller  the  conduit  may  be;  and  the  converse  of  this 
proposition  is  equally  true,  viz. :  that  the  less  the  amount 
of  fall,  the  larger  the  pipe  must  be.  Actual  experiment 
has  demonstrated  that  if  a  drain  of  100  feet  in  length, 
having  eight  feet  fall,  is  laid  with  pipe  having  a  caliber  or 
capacity  of  1J  inches,  will  in  24  hours  drain  the  same 
quantity  of  water  that  2  inch  pipes,  having  a  fall  of  2 
feet  3  inches,  will  drain  in  the  same  period,  or  a  3  inch 
pipe  having  a  fall  of  only  6  inches,  or  a  4  inch  pipe  hav- 
a  fall  of  less  than  3  inches.  Hence  the  size  of  the  tile 
is  determined  by  the  amount  of  fall. 

Again,  it  may  be  necessary  to  discharge  50,000  gallons 
of  water  in  24  hours,  where  only  two  feet  fall  in  100  feet 
in  length  can  be  had ;  a  3  inch  tile  with  one  foot  fall  will 
effect  this,  but  if  2  inch  tile  were  employed,  it  would  re- 
quire a  fall  of  4  feet  6  inches.  Hence  the  length  of  the 
drain,  or  what  is  the  same  thing  in  effect,  the  amount  of 
water  to  be  discharged,  governs  the  size  of  the  pipe. 

If  50,000  gallons  are  discharged  by  each  of  the  two 
drains,  A  and  B  (Fig.  42),  100  feet  apart,  it  is  evident 
that  if  a  third  drain,  C,  were  placed  between  them  so  as 
to  make  the  distance  between  the  drains  50  feet,  then  each 
drain  would  discharge  33,333  gallons.  But  if  two  more 

(272) 


SIZE   OP   TILE. 
DOE 


273 


25 


25 


25 


50 


100 
FIG.  42. 

drains,  D  and  E,  are  placed  between  A  and  C,  and  C  and 
B,  then  the  distance  between  the  drains  will  be  25  feet, 
and  the  amount  discharged  by  each  drain  will  be  20,000 
gallons  only. 

If,  then,  the  drains  are  made  25  feet  apart,  2  inch  tile, 
with  a  fall  of  9  inches  in  100  feet  will  drain  off  as  much 
water  as  A,  B  and  C  would  with  the  same  sized  tile,  hav- 
ing a  fall  of  two  feet,  or  3  inch  tile,  having  a  fall  of  five 
inches.  Or  if  the  two  drains,  A  and  B,  only  are  em- 
ployed, then  if  laid  with  2  inch  tile,  they  must  have  a  fall 
of  four  feet  six  inches ;  with  3  inch  tile  a  fall  of  about 
one  foot ;  or  a  fall  of  five  inches  if  4  inch  tile  are  em- 
ployed. Hence  the  distance  between  the  drains  deter- 
mines the  size  of  the  pipes. 

From  these  propositions  it  is  very  evident  that  the 
depth  of  the  drains  exerts  a  controling  influence  on  the 
size  of  the  pipes. 

Suppose  the  drain  7,  5,  in  Fig.  5,  page  99,  were  placed 
no  deeper  than  the  point  indicated  8,  it  is  very  evident 
that  in  such  case  it  would  have  less  than  half  the  amount 
of  water  to  drain  that  it  has  at  7. 

As  the  entire  efficiency  of  drains  depends  upon  a  cor- 
rect understanding  and  compliance  with  the  principles  in- 


274  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

volved  in  the  four  propositions  stated  at  the  commence- 
ment of  this  chapter,  we  shall  dwell  at  some  length  upon 
them. 

Stone  drains  require  more  fall  than  tile  drains,  on  ac- 
count of  the  friction,  or  the  retardation  water  meets  in 
passing  through  angular  crevices.  Friction  must  not  be 
omitted  in  our  calculations  of  fall  and  capacity.  Where 
water  can  flow  in  a  straight  direction  in  a  smooth  and 
regular  channel,  much  more  water  can  be  discharged  in  a 
given  time  than  where  the  angles  and  curves  occur  in  the 
direction ;  and  where  the  surface  is  smooth,  the  flow  is 
more  rapid  than  where  it  must  pass  through  a  channel  full 
of  rough  points  or  inequalities. 

In  some  recent  English  experiments  "  it  was  found  that 
with  pipes  of  the  same  diameter,  exactitude  of  form  was 
of  more  importance  than  smoothness  of  surface  ;  that 
glass  pipes,  which  had  a  wavy  surface,  discharged  less 
water,  at  the  same  inclinations,  than  Staffordshire  stone- 
ware clay  pipes,  which  were  of  perfectly  exact  construc- 
tion. By  passing  pipes  of  the  same  clay — the  common 
red  clay — under  a  second  pressure,  obtained  by  a  machine 
at  an  extra  expense  of  about  18  pence  per  1000,  while 
the  pipe  was  half  dry,  very  superior  exactitude  of  form 
was  obtained,  and  by  means  of  this  exactitude,  and  with 
nearly  the  same  diameters,  an  increased  discharge  of  water 
of  one  fourth  was  effected  within  the  same  time." 

"  On  a  large  scale,  it  was  found  that  when  equal  quan- 
tities of  water  were  running  direct,  at  a  rate  of  ninety 
seconds,  with  a  turn  at  right  angles,  the  discharge  was 
effected  in  one  hundred  and  forty  seconds ;  while,  with  a 
turn  or  junction  with  a  gentle  curve,  the  discharge  was 
effected  in  one  hundred  seconds." 


CALIBER,   ETC.,    OF   DRAIN   PIPE   TILE.  275 

CALIBER   AND   MINIMUM   FALL   OF   DRAIN   PIPE   TILE. 

Vincent,  an  English  writer,  has  adopted  Eytelwein's 
formula, 

=  6.42    ;TO 


+  50  dh 

in  the  computation  of  the  minimum  fall  and  caliber  of  the 
pipe  tile.  In  this  formula,  c  =  velocity  of  current  per 
second,  d  =  diameter,  or  caliber  of  pipe,  and  h  =  the  fall 
in  1  foot,  as  data  from  which  to  determine  the  velocity  of 
the  water  in  a  pipe  of  a  given  diameter,  and  certain  fall. 
He  determined  from  this  formula,  by  an  inverse  process, 
the  requisite  caliber  of  the  pipe  tile  c?,  for  a  given  distance 
or  length  of  drain — assuming  six  inches  per  second  to  be 
the  minimum  velocity  of  water  discharged  from  an  acre. 
The  calculations  in  question  were,  however,  based  on  hy- 
pothetic values  only ;  because  the  co-efficient,  50,  occur- 
ring in  the  formula,  refers,  originally,  to  metal  tubes  or 
pipes ;  and  there  was  no  data  at  hand  for  that  of  clay  or 
earthenware  pipes.  Owing  to  the  great  importance  of 
having  the  pipe  tile  of  proper  caliber,  John,  Waege,  and 
y.  Mollendorf,1  made  a  series  of  experiments. 

For  this  purpose  they  laid  a  number  of  drain  tile  in  a 
trough  making  a  slight  angle  with  the  horizon,  and  se- 
cured the  joints  by  moist  clay.  Water  was  then  let  into 
the  pipe  from  a  reservoir,  and  the  time  occupied  in  flow- 
ing through  the  pipes  in  seconds  and  the  quantity  dis- 
charged in  cubic  feet  was  very  carefully  observed  and 
recorded. 

The  data  obtained  from  repeated  observations,  with 
given  lengths  of  pipe  and  various  degrees  of  inclination 

1  These  experiments  are  quoted  in  detail  in  Zeitschrift  fur  Deiitsche  Drain 
irung,  1855,  pp.  79  and  106  j  also,  in  Dingler's  Polytechnische  Journal,  138 
257. 


276  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

or  fall,  and  various  capacities  or  diameters  of  pipe — and 
notwithstanding  that  the  extremes  of  twenty-two  experi- 
ments varied  about  40  per  cent,  sufficient  data  was  ob- 
tained to  change  the  co-efficient  50,  and  to  make  the  fol- 
lowing as  nearer  the  truth,  viz. : 


.     46.5  d  h 
c  =  6.42 


1—46.5  dh 

If  we  adopt  Vincent's  data,  and  assume  that  the  velo- 
city of  water,  in  pipe  tile,  amounts  to  6  inches  per  sec- 
ond, as  a  minimum,  in  order  to  secure  the  pipes  from  being 
filled  by  detritus,  or  particles  of  earth  entering  them  and 
being  deposited  by  gravity  overcoming  velocity,  then  the 
following  will  be  the  minimum  fall  (by  Vincent's  formula) 
for  drains  of  120  feet  in  length. 

For  drains  with  tile  of  1    inch  caliber,  2.33  inches  fall,  (4.8) 

"  "         1J  "  1.88 

"  "         1J  "  1.58  " 

"  "         2  "  1.20  "  (2.4) 

"  "3  "  0.82  "  (1.8) 

"  "         4  "  0.63  " 

"  "         5  "  0.52  " 

"  "         6  "  0.44 

"  "         7  "  0.39 

"  "         8  "  0.35  "  (0.5) 

The  figures  in  parentheses  are  those  adopted  by  Vincent. 
It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  these  figures  are 
applicable  only  to  such  drains  as  are  as  good  and  as  care- 
fully laid  pipes  as  those  in  the  experiment. 

In  calculating  the  capacity  of  drain  pipe  tile,  two  other 
contingencies  must  be  taken  into  account,  namely  :  the 
quantity  of  water  to  be  discharged,  and  the  distance  between 
the  drains.  Upon  the  supposition  that  well- arranged 
drains  must  discharge  the  rainfall  of  a  month  in  fourteen 
days  (assuming  4  inches  as  the  maximum),  Vincent  has 


CALIBER,   ETC.,   OF  DRAIN  PIPE   TILE.  277 

fixed  the  amount  discharged  per  second,  from  an  acre,  at 
0.00625  cubic  feet. 

In  the  course  of  several  articles  in  Zeitsclirift  fur 
Deutsche  Drainirung,  John  has  compared  the  replies  of 
several  writers  to  the  question,  "  What  is  the  capacity  of 
pipe  tile  of  a  given  caliber  ?"  Schonermark,  the  practical 
draining  engineer  of  the  Duchy  of  Brunswick,1  has  com- 
municated some  calculations  upon  this  same  subject,  and, 
as  the  principles  assumed  by  him  do  not  vary  materially 
from  those  of  the  other  authors,  and  furthermore,  as  the 
measures  employed  by  him  are  purely  Brunswickian,  and 
therefore  can  not  well  be  compared  with  those  of  John, 
without  being  reduced  to  Prussian  (almost  American) 
measure,  reference  must  be  made  by  those  interested  to 
the  "Zeitung"  itself. 

The  quantity  of  water  discharged  per  acre,  per  second, 
has  been  fixed  at 

0.0095     cubic  feet  by     Stephens  and  Leclerc, 

0.0095        "        "     "      Vincent, 

0.00289      u        "     "      Stocken, 

0.00276      "        "     "    f  Waege  and    j  for  heavy  soil 

0.00376      "        "     "  lv.  Mollendorfl     "  light  soil 

0.00426      "        "     "      Schonermark. 

Stephens  and  Leclerc  have  assumed  that  a  heavy  rain- 
fall, in  a  day,  will  amount  to  0.382  inches,  and  that  this 
amount  is  to  be  removed  by  the  drains  in  24  hours ;  the 
amount  evaporated  is  not  to  be  taken  into  account. 

Stocken  assumes  that,  after  deducting  20  per  cent,  for 
evaporation,  that  the  drains  will  discharge  the  remaining 
80  per  cent,  of  the  maximum  of  eight  days  of  winter  rains 
(which  in  that  latitude  would  average  1J  inches  for  that 
period)  in  9  days. 

Waege  and  v.  Mollendorf,  as  well  as  Vincent,  assume 

1  Agronomische  Zeitung,  1855,  page  360. 


278  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

that  the  drains  will  discharge  the  rainfalls  of  autumn, 
winter  and  spring  in  an  aggregate  of  14  days,  after  de- 
ducting for  evaporation.  They,  together  with  Dickinson, 
have  assumed  the  evaporation  for  clay  to  heavy  loam  soil, 
to  be  45  per  cent.,  and  for  a  lighter  loam  to  be  25  per 
cent,  of  the  entire  rainfall. 

Schonermark's  calculation  is  based  on  the  following 
data :  the  maximum  monthly  rain  for  Brunswick  is  4 
inches  (Brunswick  measure) ;  this  quantity  may  fall  in  8 
days ;  consequently,  -J  inch  in  one  day — this  latter  quantity 
the  drains  are  to  discharge  in  48  hours,  after  deducting 
25  per  cent,  for  evaporation. 

From  the  data  just  given,  the  comparative  capacity  of 
one  inch  and  three  inch  pipe  tile,  to  carry  off  a  given 
rainfall,  is  determined  to  be  as  follows,  by  the  various 
experimenters : 


Fall  of  3  6-10  inches  in  120  ft. 

Inch  tile.      iThree  inch  tile. 

Stephens  <fe  Le  Clerc,  - 

0.33  acre. 



Vincent,     - 

_ 

0.40     " 

7    acres. 

Stocken, 

_ 

0.98     " 

15        " 

V.  Mollendorf  ) 

heavy  soil, 

0.86     " 

13.4    " 

and  Waege   j 

light       " 

0.64     " 

9.8    " 

The  experiments  demonstrate  that,  for  Ohio  or  the 
Middle  and  Western  states  generally,  one  inch  tile  is 
entirely  too  small,  while  three  inch  tile  is  perhaps  larger 
than  necessary,  especially  when  it  is  considered  that  two 
inch  tile  will  answer  the  purpose  and  cost  a  great  deal 
less.  Alderman  Mechi  says  :  "  I  seldom  use  any  larger 
than  one  inch  bore,  except  for  large  springs.  I  am  prac- 
tically convinced  they  are  as  large  as  are  required.  We 
make  some  sad  mistakes  as  to  water :  a  rope  of  water  one 
inch  thick,  spread  eight  inches  wide,  forms  a  broad-look- 
ing stream  one  eighth  of  an  inch  thick.  It  is  perfectly 


OF   DRAIN   PIPE   TILE.  279 

ludicrous  to  see  immense  six,  nine,  and  twelve  inch  bore 
pipes  put,  in  many  cases,  to  carry  an  insignificant  stream 
that  would  fold  up  into  a  one,  two,  or  three  inch  coil. 
We  must  bear  in  mind  that  a  two  inch  pipe  Avill  carry  as 
much  as  four  one  inch ;  a  three  inch  is  equal  to  nine  one 
inch." 

Presuming  that  the  alderman  is  correct  for  England, 
where  there  is  an  average  rainfall  of  twenty-three  inches, 
should  we  not  have  at  least  two  inch  pipe  in  Ohio,  where 
the  average  rainfall  is  nearly  forty-six  inches,  or  double 
that  of  England  ?  One  and  a  half  inch  pipe  would  be 
just  the  proportion,  according  to  the  rainfall ;  but  then 
we  must  remember  that  in  England  it  is  a  perfect  drizzle 
from  January  until  December,  while  here  we  sometimes 
have  forty  days  of  drought,  and  then  a  rainfall  of  two 
inches  per  day ! 

Judge  French  obtained  from  Messrs.  Shedd  &  Edson, 
of  Boston,  the  following  valuable  tables,  showing  the  ca- 
pacity of  water  pipes,  with  the  accompanying  sugges- 
tions : 

DISCHARGE    OF    WATER    THROUGH    DRAINS. 

"  The  following  tables  of  discharge  are  founded  on  the  experi- 
ments made  by  Mr.  Smeaton,  and  have  been  compared  with  those 
by  Henry  Law,  and  with  the  rules  of  Weisbach  and  D'Aubuisson. 
The  conditions  under  which  such  experiments  are  made,  may  be  so 
essentially  different  in  each  case,  that  few  experiments  give  results 
coincident  with  each  other,  or  with  the  deductions  of  theory ;  and 
in  applying  these  tables  to  practice,  it  is  quite  likely  that  the  dis- 
charge of  a  pipe  of  a  certain  area,  at  a  certain  inclination,  may  be 
quite  unlike  the  discharge  found  to  be  due  to  those  conditions  by 
this  table,  and  that  difference  may  be  owing  partly  to  greater  or  less 
roughness  on  the  inside  of  the  pipe,  unequal  flow  of  water  through 
the  joints  into  the  pipe,  crookedness  of  the  pipes,  want  of  accuracy 
in  their  being  placed,  so  that  the  fall  may  not  be  uniform  through- 
out, or  the  ends  of  the  pipes  may  be  shoved  a  little  to  one  side,  so 
that  the  continuity  of  the  channel  is  partially  broken ;  and,  indeed, 
from  various  other  causes,  all  of  which  may  occur  in  any  practical 


280  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

case,  unless  great  care  is  taken  to  avoid  it,  and  some  of  which  may 
occur  in  almost  any  case. 

"  We  have  endeavored  to  so  construct  the  tables  that,  in  the  ordi- 
nary practice  of  draining,  the  discharge  given  may  approximate  to 
the  truth  for  a  well  laid  drain,  subject  even  to  considerable  friction. 
The  experiments  of  Mr.  Smeaton,  which  we  have  adopted  as  the 
basis  of  these  tables,  gave  a  less  quantity  discharged,  under  certain 
conditions,  than  given  under  similar  conditions  by  other  tables. 
This  result  is  probably  due  to  a  greater  amount  of  friction  in  the 
pipes  used  by  Smeaton.  The  curves  of  friction  resemble,  very 
nearly,  parabolic  curves,  but  are  not  quite  so  sharp  near  the  origin. 

"  We  propose,  during  the  coming  season,  to  institute  some  careful 
experiments,  to  ascertain  the  friction  due  to  our  own  drain  pipe. 
Water  can  get  into  the  drain  pipe  very  freely  at  the  joints,  as  may 
be  seen  by  a  simple  calculation.  It  is  impossible  to  place  the  ends 
so  closely  together,  in  laying,  as  to  make  a  tight  joint,  on  account 
of  roughness  in  the  clay,  twisting  in  burning,  etc.;  and  the  opening 
thus  made  will  usually  average  about  one  tenth  of  an  inch  on  the 
whole  circumference,  which  is,  on  the  inside  of  a  two  inch  pipe,  six 
inches — making  six  tenths  of  a  square  inch  opening  for  the  entrance 
of  water  at  each  joint. 

"•In  a  lateral  drain  200  feet  long,  the  pipes  being  thirteen  inches 
long,  there  will  be  184  joints,  each  joint  having  an  opening  of  six 
tenth  square  inch  area ;  in  184  joints  there  is  an  aggregate  area 
of  110  square  inches;  the  area  of  the  opening  at  the  end  of  a  two 
inch  pipe  is  about  three  inches;  110  square  inches  inlet  to  three 
inches  outlet ;  thirty-seven  times  as  much  water  can  flow  in  as  can 
flow  out.  There  is,  then,  no  need  for  the  water  to  go  through  the 
pores  of  the  pipe ;  and  the  fact  is,  we  think,  quite  fortunate,  for  the 
passage  of  water  through  the  pores  would  in  no  case  be  sufficient  to 
benefit  the  land  to  much  extent.  We  tried  an  experiment,  by  stop- 
ping one  end  of  an  ordinary  drain  pipe  and  filling  it  with  water. 
At  the  end  of  sixty-five  hours,  water  still  stood  in  the  pipe  three 
fourths  of  an  inch  deep.  About  half  the  water  first  put  into  the 
pipe  had  run  out  at  the  end  of  twenty-four  hours.  If  the  pipe  was 
stopped  at  both  ends,  and  plunged  four  feet  deep  in  water,  it  would 
undoubtedly  fill  in  a  short  time ;  but  such  a  test  is  an  unfair  one, 
for  no  drain  could  be  doing  service,  over  which  water  would  collect 
to  the  depth  of  four  feet." 


DISCHARGE   OF   WATER   THROUGH    PIPES. 


231 


INCH  DRAIN  PIPE. 
Area :  1.76709  inches. 


Fall  in 
100  feet. 
ft.  in. 

Velocity 
per  second 
in  feet. 

Discharge 
in  gallons 
in  £4  hours. 

Fall  in 
100  feet. 
ft.  in. 

Velocity 
per  second 
in  feet. 

Discharge 
in  gallons 
in  24  hours. 

.3 

.71 

5630.87 

5.3 

3.75 

29704.51 

.6 

1.04 

8248.03 

5.6 

3.84 

30454.28 

.9 

1.29 

10230.73 

5.9 

3.93 

31168.06 

1. 

1.52 

12054.81 

6. 

4. 

31723.21 

1.3 

1.74 

13799.59 

6.3 

4.10 

32516.36 

1.6 

1.91 

15147.83 

6.6 

4.18 

33150.76 

1.9 

2.10 

16654.68 

6.9 

4.25 

33705.91 

2. 

2.26 

17923.61 

7. 

4.33 

34340.38 

2.3 

2.41 

19113.23 

7.3 

4.41 

34974.85 

2.6 

2.56 

20302.86 

7.6 

4.49 

35609.30 

2.9 

2.69 

21333.86 

7.9 

4.56 

36154.45 

3. 

2.83 

22444.17 

8. 

4.65 

36878.23 

3.3 

2.94 

23150.71 

8.3 

4.71 

37354.08 

3.6 

3.06 

24268.25 

8.6 

4.79 

37988.55 

3.9 

3.16 

25061.34 

8.9 

4.85 

38464.40 

4. 

3.28 

26013.03 

9. 

4.91 

38940.25 

4.3 

3.38 

26806.11 

9.3 

4.98 

39495.39 

4.6 

3.46 

27440.58 

9.6 

5.04 

39971.24 

4.9 

3.56 

28233.66 

9.9 

5.10 

40447.10 

5. 

3.65 

28947.43 

10. 

5.16 

40922.93 

2  INCH  DRAIN  PIPE. 


Fall  in 
100  feet, 
ft.  in. 

Velocity 
per  second 
in  feet. 

Discharge 
in  gallons 
in  24  hours. 

Fall  in 
100  feet, 
ft.  in. 

Velocity 
per  second 
in  feet. 

Discharge 
in  gallons 
in  24  hours. 

.3 

.79 

10575.4 

5.3 

4.11 

55018.9 

.6 

1.16 

15528.4 

5.6 

4.22 

56491.5 

.9 

1.50 

20079.9 

5.9 

4.31 

57696.3 

1. 

1.71 

22891.1 

6. 

4.40 

58901.1 

1.3 

1.94 

25970. 

6.3 

4.49 

60105.9 

1.6 

2.16 

28915.1 

6.6 

4.58 

61309.7 

1.9 

2.35 

31458.5 

6.9 

4.66 

62381.6 

2. 

2.53 

33868.1 

7- 

4.74 

63452.5 

2.3 

2.69 

36009.9 

7.3 

4.83 

64667.3 

2.6 

2.83 

37884. 

7.6 

4.91 

65728.3 

2.9 

2.97 

39758.2 

7.9 

4.99 

66799.2 

3. 

3.11 

41632.4 

8. 

5.07 

67870.1 

3.3 

3.24 

43372.6 

8.3 

5.15 

68941. 

3.6 

3.36 

44979. 

8.6 

5.23 

70011.9 

3.9 

3.48 

46585.4 

8.9 

5.31 

71082.8 

4. 

3.59 

48057.9 

9. 

5.38 

72019.9 

4.3 

3.70 

49530.5 

9.3 

5.46 

73090.9 

4.6 

3.80 

50869.1 

9.6 

5.53 

74027.9 

4.9 

3.91 

52341.6 

9.9 

5.60 

74965. 

5. 

4.02 

53814.1 

10. 

5.67 

75902. 

25 


282 


LAND   DRAINAGE. 


3  INCH   DRAIN  PIPE. 


Fall  in 
100  feet. 
ft.  in. 

Velocity 
per  second 
in  feet. 

Discharge 
in  gallons 
in  24  hours. 

Fall  in 
100  feet. 
ft.  in. 

Velocity 
per  second 
in  feet. 

Discharge 
in  gallons 
in  24  hours. 

.3 

.90 

24687.2 

5.3 

4.57 

125356.2 

.6 

1.33 

36482.2 

5.6 

4.68 

128373.5 

.9 

1.66 

45534.2 

5.9 

4.78 

131116.6 

1. 

1.94 

53214.7 

6. 

4.89 

134133.9 

1.3 

2.19 

60072.2 

6.3 

4.98 

136602.6 

1.6 

2.43 

66655.5 

6.6 

5.08 

139345.6 

1.9 

2.63 

72141.5 

6.9 

5.18 

142088.7 

2. 

2.83 

77627.6 

7. 

5.27 

144557.4 

2.3 

3. 

82290.7 

7.3 

5.37 

147306.4 

2.6 

3.16 

86679.6 

7.6 

5.46 

150069.1 

2.9 

3.31 

90794.1 

7.9 

5.55 

152237.8 

3. 

3.47 

95182.9 

8. 

5.64 

154706.6 

3.3 

3.60 

98748.9 

8.3 

5.73 

157175.3 

3.6 

3.74 

102589.1 

8.6 

5.82 

159644.0 

3.9 

3.87 

106155. 

8.9 

5.91 

162112.7 

4. 

3.99 

109446.7 

9. 

5.99 

164313.2 

4.3 

4.11 

112738.3 

9.3 

6.07 

166501.6 

4.6 

4.23 

116029.9 

9.6 

6.16 

168970.3 

4.9 

4.34 

119047.3 

9.9 

6.24 

171164.7 

5. 

4.46 

122338.9 

10. 

6.32 

173359.1 

4  INCH  DRAIN  PIPE. 


Fall  in 
100  feet, 
ft.  in. 

Velocity 
per  second 
in  feet. 

Discharge 
in  gallons 
in  24  hours. 

Fall  in 
100  feet, 
ft.  in. 

Velocity 
per  second 
in  feet. 

Discharge 
in  gallons 
in  24  hours. 

.3 

1.08 

43697.6 

5.3 

4.86 

196639.4 

.6 

1.50 

60691.2 

5.6 

4.97 

201090.1 

.9 

1.83 

74043.2 

5.9 

5.09 

205945.3 

1. 

2.13 

86181.4 

6. 

5.20 

210396. 

1.3 

2.38 

96296.6 

6.3 

5.30 

214442.1 

1.6 

2.61 

105602.6 

6.6 

5.41 

218892.8 

1.9 

2.81 

113694.8 

6.9 

5.51 

222938.8 

2. 

3. 

121382.3 

7. 

5.61 

226984.9 

2.3 

3.19 

129089.9 

7.3 

5.71 

231031. 

2.6 

3.36 

135948.2 

7.6 

5.81 

235077.1 

2.9 

3.53 

142826.5 

7.9 

5.91 

239123.2 

3. 

3.68 

148895.7 

8. 

6.01 

243169.2 

3.3 

3.82 

154560.2 

8.3 

6.10 

246810.7 

3.6 

3.96 

160224.7 

8.6 

6.19 

250452.2 

3.9 

4.10 

165889.2 

8.9 

6.28 

253193.7 

4. 

4.24 

171553.7 

9. 

6.37 

257735.2 

4.3 

4.87 

176813.6 

9.3 

6.45 

260971.9 

4.6 

4.50 

182073.5 

9.6 

6.54 

264603.1 

4.9 

4.62 

186928.3 

9.9 

6.63 

268254.9 

5. 

4.75 

192188.7 

10. 

6.71 

271491.8 

DISCHARGE   OF   WATER   THROUGH    PIPES.  283 

5  INCH  DRAIN  PIPE. 


Fall  in 
100  feet, 
ft.  in. 

Velocity 
per  second 
in  feet. 

Discharge 
in  gallous 
in  24  hours. 

Fall  in 
100  feet, 
ft.  in. 

Velocity 
per  second 
in  feet. 

Discharge 
in  gallons 
in  24  hours. 

.3 

1.13 

95841.2 

5.3 

5.02 

442401.3 

.6 

1.57 

138362.  v 

5.6 

5.14 

452976.6 

.9 

1.90 

167442.0 

5.9 

5.25 

462670.6 

1. 

2.20 

193881. 

6. 

5.37 

473246. 

1.3 

2.45 

215912.9 

6.3 

5.49 

483820.4 

1.6 

2.70 

237944.9 

6.6 

5.60 

493514.6 

1.9 

2.90 

255569.5 

6.9 

5.70 

502327.4 

2. 

3.10 

273195.9 

7. 

5.80 

511140.2 

2.3 

3.29 

289940.1 

7.3 

5.90 

520052. 

2.6 

3.46 

304921.9 

7.6 

6. 

528766.5 

2.9 

3.64 

320784.9 

7.9 

6.10 

537578.7 

3. 

3.80 

334885.4 

8. 

6.20 

546391.5 

3.3 

3.96 

348974.8 

8.3 

6.30 

555204.5 

3.6 

4.11 

362204.9 

8.6 

6.40 

564017. 

3.9 

4.26 

375424.1 

8.9 

6.49 

571948. 

4. 

4.40 

387762.1 

9. 

6.58 

579880. 

4.3 

4.52 

398337.5 

9.3 

6.66 

586930.2 

4.6 

4.66 

410675.3 

9.6 

6.75 

594861.4 

4.9 

4.78 

421250.6 

9.9 

6.84 

602793.2 

5. 

4.90 

430825.0 

10. 

6.93 

610723.8 

8  INCH  DRAIN  PIPE. 

Area :  50.2640  inches. 


Fall  in 
100  feet, 
ft.  in. 

Velocity 
per  second 
in  feet. 

Discharge 
in  gallons 
in  24  hours. 

Fall  in 
100  feet, 
ft.  in. 

Velocity 
per  second 
in  feet. 

Discharge 
in  gallons 
in  24  hours. 

.3 

1.23 

277487.7 

5.3 

5.35 

1206959.3 

.6 

1.65 

372239.7 

5.6 

5.47 

1234031.3 

.9 

2.01 

453455.7 

5.9 

5.59 

1261103.3 

1. 

2.33 

525647.7 

6. 

5.71 

1288175.3 

1.3 

2.60 

586559.7 

6.3 

5.83 

1315247.3 

1.6 

2.85 

642959.6 

6.6 

5.95 

1343838.9 

1.9 

3.08 

694847.6 

6.9 

6.07 

1369391.3 

2. 

3.30 

744479.7 

7. 

6.17 

1391951.2 

2.3 

3.50 

789599.6 

7.3 

6.27 

1414531.1 

2.6 

3.70 

844719.7 

7.6 

6.39 

1441583.2 

2.9 

3.89 

877583.5 

7.9 

6.50 

1466399.3 

3. 

4.05 

913679.5 

8. 

6.60 

1488959.2 

3.3 

4.21 

949775.6 

8.3 

6.70 

1511539.1 

3.6 

4.37 

971658.7 

8.6 

6.80 

1534099.0 

3.9 

4.53 

920447.4 

8.9 

6.90 

1556658.9 

4. 

4.67 

1055551.4 

9. 

7. 

1579199.3 

4.3 

4.81 

1086135.4 

9.3 

7.10 

1601759.2 

4.6 

4.95 

1116718.7 

9.6 

7.20 

1624319.1 

4.9 

5.08 

1146047.4 

9.9 

7.29 

1644622.1 

5. 

5.22 

1177631.3 

10. 

7.38 

1664927.1 

CHAPTER     III. 


DEPTH    OF    J  LIA1NS. 

THE  proper  depth  of  drains,  depends  on  various  condi- 
tions, but  especially  on  the  amount  of  outfall,  and  the 
nature  of  the  soil.  In  some  fields,  it  may  be  possible  to 
obtain  ready  outfall  for  drains  thirty  inches  in  depth, 
where  great  expense  would  be  incurred,  if  the  drains  were 
laid  at  depths  of  three  or  four  feet ;  in  such  a  case,  it  is 
better  to  use  comparatively  shallow  drains  and  compen- 
sate by  placing  them  at  shorter  distances.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  are  situations  where  the  outfall  is  sufficient, 
and  where  a  soil  of  porous  materials  lies  on  clay  at  a 
depth  of  four  feet ;  it  is  then  better,  and  in  the  end 
cheaper,  to  put  the  drain  down  upon  the  clay,  and  at  pro- 
portionately greater  distances  apart.  The  cost  will  also 
be  considered,  in  settling  questions  of  depth  and  distance  ; 
deep  drains  are  disproportionately  expensive  for  the  cost 
of  taking  out  the  lower  foot  of  a  four  feet  drain,  and  is 
almost  equal  to  that  of  removing  the  upper  three  feet ; 
while  shallow  drains,  which  require  to  be  nearer  together, 
involve  a  greater  outlay  for  tiles.  There  has  been  an  im- 
mense amount  of  controversy  between  the  advocates  of 
shallow  drains,  and  the  advocates  of  the  deep,  the  one 
part  preferring  a  depth  of  two  feet  six  inches,  the  other  a 
depth  of  four  feet.  Practical  and  experienced  men  have 
come  to  regard  these  two  opinions,  as  indicating  the  pos- 
sible range  of  useful  drainage,  either  of  which  may  be 
adopted  under  special  circumstances,  while  in  almost  all 
cases  the  most  useful  and  economical  depth  lies  between 
these  extremes,  or  about  three  feet. 

(284) 


DEPTH  OF  DRAINS.  285 

The  depth  of  the  drain  being  one  of  the  most  important 
considerations,  we  will  give  at  some  length  the  opinions 
of  those  who  have  had  ample  experience,  added  to  very 
extensive  observations.  The  first  authority  we  shall  refer 
to,  is  Mr.  Gisborne  : 

"  Many  experiments  have  shown  that,  in  retentive  soils,  the  temper- 
ature at  2  or  3  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  water  table  is,  at  no  pe- 
riod of  the  year,  higher  than  from  46°  to  48°,  i.  e.  in  agricultural 
Britain.  This  temperature  is  little  affected  by  summer  heats,  for 
the  following  short  reasons.  Water,  in  a  quiescent  state  is  one  of 
the  worse  conductors  of  heat  with  which  we  are  acquainted.  Water 
warmed  at  the  surface  transmits  little  or  no  heat  downward.  The 
small  portion  warmed  expands,  becomes  lighter  than  that  below, 
consequently  retains  its  position  on  the  surface,  and  carries  no  heat 
downward. l  To  ascertain  the  mean  heat  of  the  air  at  the  surface 
of  the  earth  over  any  extended  space,  and  for  a  period  of  eight  or 
nine  months,  is  no  simple  operation.  More  elements  enter  into  such 
a  calculation  than  we  have  space  or  ability  to  enumerate ;  but  we 
know  certainly  that,  for  seven  months  in  the  year,  air,  at  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  is  seldom  lower  than  48°,  never  much  lower,  and  only 
for  short  periods :  whereas,  at  four  feet  from  the  surface,  in  the 
shade,  from  70°  to  80°  is  not  an  unusual  temperature,  and  in  a  south- 
ern exposure,  in  hot  sunshine,  double  that  temperature  is  not  unfre- 
quently  obtained  on  the  surface.  Now  let  us  consider  the  effect  of 
drains  placed  from  2  to  3  feet  below  the  water  table,  and  acting  dur- 
ing the  seven  months  of  which  we  have  spoken.  They  draw  out 
water  of  the  temperature  of  48°.  Every  particle  of  water  which  they 
withdraw  at  this  temperature  is  replaced  by  an  equal  bulk  of  air  at 
a  higher,  and  frequently  at  a  much  higher  temperature.  The  warmth 
of  the  air  is  carried  down  into  the  earth.  The  temperature  of  the  soil, 
to  the  depth  to  which  the  water  is  removed,  is  in  a  course  of  constant 
assimilation  to  the  temperature  of  the  air  at  the  surface.  From  this 


1  When  water  is  heated  from  below,  the  portion  first  subjected  to  the  heat 
rises  to  the  surface,  and  every  portion  is  successively  subjected  to  the  heat 
and  rises,  and  each,  having  lost  some  of  its  heat  at  the  surface,  is  in  turn 
displaced.  Constant  motion  is  kept  up,  and  a  constant  approximation  to 
an  equal  temperature  in  the  whole  body.  The  application  of  superficial 
heat  has  no  tendency  to  disturb  the  quiescence  of  water. 


286  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

it  follows  necessarily,  that  during  that  period  of  the  year  when  the 
temperature  of  air  at  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  generally  below  48°, 
retentive  soils  which  have  been  drained  are  colder  than  those  which 
have  not.  Perhaps  this  is  no  disadvantage.  In  still  more  artificial 
cultivation  than  the  usual  run  of  agriculture,  gardeners  are  not  in- 
sensible to  the  advantage  of  a  total  suspension  of  vegetation  for  a 
short  period.  In  Britain,  we  suffer,  not  from  an  excess  of  cold  in 
winter,  but  from  a  deficiency  of  warmth  in  summer.  Grapes  and 
maize,  to  which  our  somber  skies  deny  maturity,  come  to  full  perfec- 
tion in  many  regions  whose  winters  are  longer  and  more  severe  than 
ours.  However,  we  state  the  facts,  without  asking  to  put  a  largo 
amount  therefrom  to  the  credit  of  our  drainage. 

"  Mr.  Parkes  gives  temperatures  on  a  Lancashire  flat  moss,  but 
they  only  commence  at  7  inches  below  the  surface,  and  do  not  ex- 
tend to  midsummer.  At  that  period  of  the  year  the  temperature  at 
7  inches  never  exceeded  66°,  and  was  generally  from  10°  to  15°  below 
the  temperature  of  air  in  the  shade,  at  4  feet  above  the  earth.  At 
the  depth  of  13  inches  the  soil  was  generally  from  5°  to  8°  cooler 
than  at  7  inches.  Mr.  Parkes'  experiments  were  made  simultane- 
ously on  a  drained  and  on  an  undrained  portion  of  the  moss  ;  and 
the  result  was,  that,  on  a  mean  of  35  observations,  the  drained  soil 
at  7  inches  in  depth  was  10°  warmer  than  the  undrained  at  the  same 
depth.  The  undrained  soil  never  exceeded  47°,  whereas  after  a 
thunder-storm  the  drained  reached  66°  at  7  inches,  and  48°  at  31 
inches.  Such  were  the  effects  at  an  early  period  of  the  year  on  a 
black  bog.  They  suggest  some  idea  of  what  they  are,  when  in  July 
or  August  thunder-rain  at  60°  or  70°  falls  on  a  surface  heated  to  130°, 
and  carries  down  with  it  into  the  greedy  fissures  of  the  earth  its 
augmented  temperature.  These  advantages  porous  soils  possess  by 
nature,  and  retentive  soils  only  acquire  them  by  drainage.1 

1  The  only  temperature  of  thunder  rain  given  in  Mr.  Parkes'  Tables  is  78. 
This,  we  imagine,  must  be  an  extreme  heat.  We  have  heard,  with  much 
satisfaction,  that  Mr.  Parkes  is,  by  means  of  his  numerous  staff  stationed 
at  the  works  which  he  is  carrying  on  in  many  parts  of  Great  Britain,  Ire- 
land, and  (we  believe)  France,  conducting  a  series  of  experiments  on 
the  temperatures  of  water  of  drainage,  which  tend  to  show  an  increase 
in  some  proportion  to  the  length  of  time  for  which  the  drainage  has  been 
executed.  We  know  no  experiments  connected  with  agriculture  to  the  re- 
sult of  which  we  look  with  more  hopeful  expectation.  Any  agriculturist  may, 
by  means  of  a  delicate  thermometer,  conduct  and  record  such  observations 
on  his  own  farm.  Probably  the  water  of  drainage  from  firm  land  may  bo 


DEPTH  OF  DRAINS.  287 

"  In  all  soils  the  existence  of  the  water  table  nearer  than  4  feet 
from  the  surface  of  the  land  is  prejudicial  to  vegetation.  Here  open 
upon  us  the  yelpings  of  the  whole  shallow  pack.  Pour  feet!  The 
same  depth  for  all  soils !  Here's  quackery !  We  think  Mr.  Parkes 
must  have  stood  in  very  unnecessary  awe  of  this  pack,  when  he 
penned  the  following  half-apologetic  sentence,  which  is  quite  at  va- 
riance with  the  wise  decision  with  which,  in  other  passages  of  his 
works,  he  insists  on  depths  of  four  feet  and  upward  in  all  soils  : 
;  In  respect  of  the  depth  at  which  drains  may,  with  a  certainty  of 
action,  be  placed  in  a  soil,  I  pretend  to  assign  no  rule ;  for  there 
can  not,  in  my  opinion,  be  a  more  crude  or  mistaken  idea  than  that 
one  rule  of  depth  is  applicable  with  equal  efficiency  to  soils  of  all 
kinds.'1  Those  words — equal  efficiency — are  a  sort  of  saving  clause ; 
for  we  do  not  believe  that  when  Mr.  Parkes  wrote  them,  he  enter- 
tained '  the  crude  or  mistaken  idea'  of  ever  putting  in  an  agricultu- 
ral drain  less  than  4  feet  deep,  if  he  could  help  it.  We  will  supply 
the  deficiency  in  Mr.  Parkes'  explanation,  and  will  show  that  the 
idea  of  a  minimum  depth  of  four  feet  is  neither  crude  nor  mistaken. 
And  as  to  '  quackery' — which  occurs  passim  in  the  writings  and 
speeches  of  the  shallow  drainers — there  is  no  quackery  in  assigning 
a  minimum.  Every  drainer  does  it,  and  must  do  it.  The  shallow- 
est man  must  put  his  drains  out  of  the  way  of  the  plow  and  of  the 
feet  of  cattle.  That  is  his  minimum.  The  man  who  means  to  sub- 
soil must  be  out  of  the  way  of  his  agricultural  implement.  These 
two  minima  are  fixed  on  mechanical  grounds.  We  will  fix  a  mini- 
mum founded  on  ascertained  facts  and  on  the  principles  of  vegetation. 

"  Every  gentleman  who,  at  his  matutinal  or  ante-prandial 
toilet,  will  take  his  well-dried  sponge,  and  dip  the  tip  of  it  into 
water,  will  find  that  the  sponge  will  become  wet  above  the 
point  of  contact  between  the  sponge  and  the  water,  and  this 
wetness  will  ascend  up  the  sponge,  in  a  diminishing  ratio,  to 
the  point  where  the  forces  of  attraction  and  of  gravity  are  equal. 
This  illustration  is  for  gentlemen  of  the  Clubs,  of  London  draw- 
ing-rooms, of  the  Inns  of  Court,  and  for  others  of  similar  habits. 
For  gentlemen  who  are  floriculturists,  we  have  an  illustration 

expected  to  be  higher  in  temperature  than  that  from  the  quoted  bog  in  sum- 
mer, and  lower  in  winter. 

l  Smith  of  Deanston  may  perhaps  be  open  to  some  observation,  for  we 
believe  that  he  did  unadvisedly  recommend,  in  thorough  draining,  an  equal 
depth  and  equal  distance  for  parallel  drains  in  all  soils. 


288    '  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

much  more  apposite  to  the  point  which  we  are  discussing.  Take  a 
flower-pot  a  foot  deep,  filled  with  dry  soil.  Place  it  in  a  saucer  con- 
taining three  inches  of  water.  The  first  effect  will  be,  that  the  water 
will  rise  through  the  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  pot  till  the  water 
which  fills  the  interstices  between  the  soil  is  on  a  level  with  the 
water  in  the  saucer.  This  effect  is  by  gravity.  The  upper  surface 
of  this  water  is  our  water  table.  From  it  water  will  ascend  by  at- 
traction through  the  whole  body  of  soil  till  moisture  is  apparent  at 
the  surface.  Put  in  your  soil  at  60°,  a  reasonable  summer  heat  for 
nine  inches  in  depth,  your  water  at  47°,  the  seven  inches'  tempera- 
ture of  Mr.  Parkes'  undrained  bog;  the  attracted  water  will  ascend 
at  47°,  and  will  diligently  occupy  itself  in  attempting  to  reduce  the 
60°  soil  to  its  own  temperature.  Moreover,  no  sooner  will  the  soil 
hold  water  of  attraction,  than  evaporation  will  begin  to  carry  it  off, 
and  will  produce  the  cold  consequent  thereon.  This  evaporated 
water  will  be  replaced  by  water  of  attraction  at  47°,  and  this  double 
cooling  process  will  go  on  till  all  the  water  in  the  water  table  is  ex- 
hausted. Supply  water  to  the  saucer  as  fast  as  it  disappears,  and 
then  the  process  will  be  perpetual.  The  system  of  saucer-watering 
is  reprobated  by  every  intelligent  gardener ;  it  is  found  by  experi- 
ence to  chill  vegetation;  besides  which,  scarcely  any  cultivated 
plant  can  dip  its  roots  into  stagnant  water  with  impunity.  Exactly 
the  process  which  we  have  described  in  the  flower-pot  is  constantly 
in  operation  on  undrained  retentive  soil :  the  water  table  may  not 
be  within  nine  inches  of  the  surface,  but  in  very  many  instances  it 
is  within  a  foot  or  eighteen  inches,  at  which  level  the  cold  surplus 
oozes  into  some  ditch  or  other  superficial  outlet.  At  18  inches,  at- 
traction will,  on  the  average  of  soils,  act  with  considerable  power. 
Here,  then,  you  have  two  obnoxious  principles  at  work,  both  pro- 
ducing cold,  and  the  one  administering  to  the  other.  The  obvious 
remedy  is,  to  destroy  their  united  action;  to  break  through  their  line 
of  communication.  Remove  your  water  of  attraction  to  such  a  depth 
that  evaporation  can  not  act  upon  it,  or  but  feebly.  What  is  that 
depth  ?  In  ascertaining  this  point  we  are  not  altogether  without 
data.  No  doubt  depth  diminishes  the  power  of  evaporation  rapidly. 
Still,  as  water  taken  from  a  30  inch  drain  is  almost  invariably  two  or 
three  degrees  colder  than  water  taken  from  4  feet,  and  as  this  latter 
is  generally  one  or  two  degrees  colder  than  water  from  a  contiguous 
well  several  feet  below,  we  can  hardly  avoid  drawing  the  conclusion 
that  the  cold  of  evaporation  has  considerable  influence  at  30  inches, 
a  much  diminished  influence  at  4  feet,  and  little  or  none  below  that 


DEPTH   OF    DRAINS.  289 

depth.  If  the  water  table  is  removed  to  the  depth  of  4  feet,  when 
we  have  allowed  18  inches  of  attraction,  we  shall  still  have  30  inches 
of  defense  against  evaporation  ;  and  we  are  inclined  to  believe  that 
any  prejudicial  combined  action  of  attraction  and  evaporation  is 
thereby  well  guarded  against.  The  facts  stated  seem  to  prove  that 
less  will  not  suffice. 

"  A  farmer  manures  a  field  of  four  or  five  inches  of  free  soil  re- 
posing on  a  retentive  clay,  and  sows  it  with  wheat  It  comes  up, 
and  between  the  kernel  and  the  manure  it  looks  well  for  a  time,  but 
anon  it  sickens.  An  Irish  child  looks  well  for  five  or  six  years,  but 
after  that  time  potatoe  feeding,  and  filth,  and  hardship,  begin  to  tell. 
You  ask  what  is  amiss  with  the  wheat,  and  you  are  told  that  when 
its  roots  reach  the  clay  they  are  poisoned.  This  field  is  then  tho- 
rough drained,  deep,  at  least  four  feet.  It  receives  again  from  the 
cultivator  the  previous  treatment ;  the  wheat  comes  up  well,  main- 
tains a  healthy  aspect,  and  gives  a  good  return.  What  has  become 
of  the  poison  ?  We  have  been  told  that  rain  water  filtered  through 
the  soil  has  taken  it  into  solution  or  suspension,  and  has  carried  it 
off  through  the  drains,  and  men  who  assume  to  be  of  authority  put 
forward  this  as  one  of  the  advantages  of  draining.  If  we  believed 
it  we  could  not  advocate  draining.  We  really  should  not  have  the 
face  to  tell  our  readers  that  water,  passing  through  soils  containing 
elements  prejudicial  to  vegetation,  would  carry  them  off,  but  would 
leave  those  which  are  beneficial  behind. l  We  can  not  make  our 
water  so  discriminating ;  the  general  merit  of  water  of  deep  drain- 
age is,  that  it  contains  very  little.  Its  perfection  would  be,  that  it 
should  contain  nothing.  We  understand  that  experiments  are  in 
progress  which  have  ascertained  that  water,  charged  with  matters 
which  are  known  to  stimulate  vegetation,  when  filtered  through  four 
feet  of  retentive  soil,  comes  out  pure. 2  But  to  return  to  our  wheat. 
In  the  first  case,  it  shrinks  before  the  cold  of  evaporation,  and  the  cold 
of  water  of  attraction,  and  it  sickens  because  its  feet  are  never  dry; 
it  suffers  the  usual  maladies  of  cold  and  wet.  In  the  second  case, 
the  excess  of  cold  by  evaporation  is  withdrawn;  the  cold  water  of 
attraction  is  removed  out  of  its  way;  the  warm  air  from  the  surface, 

1  We  do  not  deny  that  some  subsoils  contain  matter  prejudicial  to  vege- 
tation, but  generally  they  are  not  worse  than  a  caput  mortnum  ;  seldom  quite 
so  bad. 

2  Since  this  Essay  was  first  printed,  a  portion  of  these  experiments  has 
been  communicated  to  the  public  by  Professor  Way. 

26 


290  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

rushing  in  to  supply  the  place  of  the  water  which  the  drains  re- 
move, and  the  warm  summer  rains,  bearing  down  with  them  the 
temperature  which  they  have  acquired  from  the  upper  soil,  carry  a 
genial  heat  to  its  lowest  roots.  Health,  vigorous  growth,  and  early 
maturity  are  the  natural  consequences. 

"  Water  can  only  get  into  drains  by  gravity,  which  only  acts  by 
descent — technically,  by  fall;  the  fall  must  be  proportioned  to  the 
friction  which  the  water  encounters  on  its  passage.  Suppose  drains 
four  feet  deep  to  be  placed  twelve  yards  apart  on  level  land,  it  is 
plain  that  water  at  that  depth,  lying  at  the  intermediate  point 
between  the  two  drains,  will  not  get  into  either  of  them.  A  fall  of 
some  inches  will  be  required  to  enable  it  to  overcome  the  friction  of 
six  yards  of  retentive  soil.  In  order,  therefore,  to  lower  the  water 
table  to  four  feet  at  all  points,  the  drains  must  be  some  inches  deeper 
than  four  feet.  If  the  land  lies  on  a  slope  (say  four  inches  to  the 
yard),  drains  of  four  feet,  if  driven  on  the  line  of  steepest  descent, 
will  effect  the  object;  because,  though  water  at  four  feet,  lying  at 
the  intermediate  point  between  two  drains,  in  a  line  at  right  angles 
to  them,  can  not  for  want  of  fall  get  into  either  of  them  by  travel- 
ing six  yards,  it  will  find  a  fall  of  four  inches  at  less  than  seven,  and 
of  eight  inches  at  less  than  eight,  yards.  If  we  must  speak  quite 
correctly,  this  intermediate  water  will  never  get  into  the  drain  till 
there  is  a  fresh  supply ;  it  will  descend  perpendicularly,  pushing  out 
that  which  lies  below  it,  and  will  be  itself  displaced  by  a  fresh  ar- 
rival from  the  heavens.  In  order  that  the  whole  soil,  if  homogene- 
ous, or  nearly  so,  may  be  drained  evenly,  it  is  manifest  that  the 
drains  must  be  parallel.  Extra  friction  in  the  soil  must  be  met 
either  by  making  the  drains  deeper,  or  by  placing  them  nearer.  On 
this  point,  which  is  one  of  practice  rather  than  of  principle,  each 
case  must  be  left  to  the  sagacity  of  the  operator.  We  doubt  whether 
in  any  natural  soil  the  friction  is  so  great  as  to  resist  a  fall  of  one 
inch  in  a  yard.  If  we  are  right  in  this  point,  we  should  always  at- 
tain the  object  of  lowering  the  water  table  to  four  feet  by  4-feet 
0  inch  drains,  parallel,  and  twelve  yards  apart.  We  have  already 
stated  one  advantage  which  results  on  a  slope  from  driving  the  par- 
allel drains  in  the  line  of  steepest  descent:  to-wit,  that  when  they 
are  so  driven,  all  water  which  lies  at  the  same  depth  from  the  sur- 
face at  the  bottoms  of  the  drains,  can  find  a  fall  into  one  or  the 
other  by  traveling  a  little  more  than  half  the  distance  between 
them;  whereas,  if  the  drains  are  driven  across  the  slope,  half  the 
water  so  situated  as  to  depth  can  only  find  a  fall  into  the  lower 


DEPTH   OF   DAMNS.  291 

drain,  and  in  order  to  reach  it  must  travel  distances  varying  from 
one  half  to  the  full  interval  between  the  two. 

"We  shall  dismiss,  with  a  very  few  words,  two  classes  of  writers 
on  the  subject  of  draining:  1.  Those  who  limit  the  advantages  of 
a  drain  to  the  water  which  is  passed  into  it  from  its  own  surface, 
and  who,  therefore,  enjoin  that  it  should  be  filled  with  porous  mate- 
rial, and  that  it  should  be  shallow.  2.  Those  who  will  not  drain  4 
or  5  feet  deep  because  it  makes  the  ground  too  dry  for  the  roots  of 
plants.  This  idea  must  have  come  from  some  garret,  having  been 
conceived  by  an  ingenious  recluse  brooding  over  his  ignorance,  and 
reasoning  as  follows :  What  makes  vegetation  burn  up  ?  The  absence 
of  water  from  its  roots.  What  takes  away  the  water  ?  Deep  drains. 
Ergo,  deep  drains  are  the  cause  of  burning.  We  will  supply  a  for- 
mula: Why  does  vegetation  burn?  Because  its  roots  are  very  super- 
ficial. Why  superficial  ?  Because  they  won't  face  the  cold  of  stag- 
nant water.  What  removes  the  cold  and  the  water?  Deep  drains. 
And  the  facts  exactly  coincide  with  our  logic.  Deep  drained  lands 
never  do  burn.  Nothing  burns  sooner  than  a  few  inches  of  soil  on 
a  very  retentive  clay.  No  land  is  less  subject  to  burn  than  the  same 
soil  when,  by  4  or  5  feet  draining,  a  range  of  3  or  4  feet  has  been 
given  to  the  previously  superficial  roots. 

"Having  dismissed  these  two  small  matters,  we  must  treat  more 
respectfully  a  lingering  skepticism  as  to  the  efficacy  of  deep  draina 
in  very  retentive  soils ;  and  instead  of  wondering  at  this  skepticism, 
we  wonder  rather  that  deep  thorough  draining  has  so  rapidly  made 
converts.  Representations  are  made  of  soils  which  consist  of  some 
inches  of  a  moderately  porous  material  reposing  on  a  subsoil  which 
is  said  to  be  impervious ;  and  we  are  told  that  it  is  of  no  use  to 
make  the  drain  deeper  into  the  impervious  matter  than  will  suffice 
for  laying  the  conduit.  If  the  subsoil  is  impervious,  as  glass  or  even 
as  cast  iron  or  caoutchouc  are  impervious,  we  at  once  admit  the 
soundness  of  the  argument.  We  only  want  to  ask  one  question :  Is 
your  subsoil  moister  after  the  rains  of  midwinter  than  it  is  after 
the  drought  of  midsummer?  If  it  is,  it  will  drain.  Mr.  Mechi  asks, 
shrewdly  enough  :  '  If  your  soil  is  impervious,  how  did  you  get  it 
wet?'  This  imperviousness  is  always  predicated  of  strong  clays — 
plastic  clays  they  are  sometimes  called.  We  really  thought  that  no 
one  was  so  ignorant  as  not  to  be  aware  that  clay  lands  always  shrink 
and  crack  with  drought,  and  the  stiffer  the  clay  the  greater  the 
shrinking,  as  brickmakers  well  know.  In  the  great  drought  thirty- 
six  years  ago,  we  saw,  in  a  very  retentive  soil  in  the  Vale  of  Bel- 


292  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

voir,  cracks  which  it  was  not  very  pleasant  to  ride  among.  This 
very  summer,  on  land  which,  with  reference  to  this  very  subject,  the 
owner  stated  to  be  impervious,  we  put  a  walking-stick  three  feet  into 
a  sun  crack  without  finding  a  bottom,  and  the  whole  surface  was 
what  Mr.  Parkes  not  inappropriately  calls  a  net-work  of  cracks. 
When  heavy  rain  comes  upon  the  soil  in  this  state,  of  course,  the 
cracks  fill,  the  clay  imbibes  the  water,  expands,  and  the  cracks  are 
abolished.  But  if  there  are  4  or  5  feet  parallel  drains  in  the  land, 
the  water  passes  at  once  into  them,  and  is  carried  off.  In  fact,  when 
heavy  rain  falls  upon  clay  lands  in  this  cracked  state,  it  passes  off 
too  quickly,  without  adequate  filtration.  Into  the  fissures  of  the 
undrained  soil,  the  roots  only  penetrate  to  be  perished  by  the  cold 
and  wet  of  the  succeeding  winter;  but  in  the  drained  soil  the  roots 
follow  the  threads  of  vegetable  mold  which  have  been  washed  into 
the  cracks,  and  get  an  abiding  tenure.  Earth  worms  follow  either 
the  roots  or  the  mold.  Permanent  schisms  are  established  in  the 
clay,  and  its  whole  character  is  changed.  An  old  farmer  in  a  mid- 
land county  began  with  20  inch  drains  across  the  hill,  and,  without 
ever  reading  a  word,  or,  we  believe,  conversing  with  any  one  on  the 
subject,  poked  his  way,  step  by  step,  to  4  or  5  feet  drains  in  the  line 
of  steepest  descent.  Showing  us  his  drains  this  spring,  he  said: 
'They  do  better  year  by  year;  the  water  gets  a  habit  of  coming  to 
them.'  A  very  correct  statement  of  the  fact,  though  not  a  very  phi- 
losophical explanation.  Year  by  year  the  average  dryness  of  the 
soil  increases,  the  cracks  are  further  extended,  and  seldom er  oblite- 
rated. A  man  may  drain  retentive  soils  deep  and  well,  but  he  will 
be  disappointed  if  he  expects  what  is  unreasonable.  No  intelligent 
and  honest  operator  will  say  more  than  that  money  judiciously  ex- 
pended in  draining  them  will  pay  good,  and  generally  very  good,  in- 
terest. If  you  eat  off  turnips  with  sheep,  if  you  plow  the  land,  or 
cart  on  it,  or  in  any  way  puddle  it  when  it  is  wet,  of  course  the 
water  will  lie  on  the  surface,  and  will  not  go  to  your  drains.  A  4-feet 
drain  may  go  very  near  a  pit  or  a  watercourse  without  attracting 
water  from  either,  because  watercourses  almost  invariably  puddle 
their  beds,  and  the  same  effect  is  produced  in  pits  by  the  treading 
of  cattle,  and  even  by  the  motion  of  the  water  produced  by  wind. 
A  very  thin  film  of  puddle  always  wet  on  one  side  is  impervious, 
because  it  can  not  crack. 

"  No  system  of  draining  can  relieve  soils  of  water  of  attraction. 
That  can  only  be  exhausted  by  evaporation.  Retentive  soils  hold  it 
in  excess;  its  reduction  by  evaporation  produces  cold;  and,  there- 


DEPTH   OF  DRAINS.  293 

fore,  retentive  soils  never  can  be  so  warm  as  porous.  Expect 
reasonable  things  only  of  your  drained  retentive  soils,  and  you  will 
not  be  disappointed.  Shallow  drainers  start  with  the  idea  of  a  drop 
of  water  falling  on  the  top  of  the  soil,  and  working  its  solitary  way 
through  narrow  and  tortuous  passages  to  a  drain ;  and  they  say  that 
it  would  be  lost  in  the  labyrinth,  which  we  think  very  likely.  They 
have  no  idea  that  the  water  operated  upon  by  the  drain  is  that  which 
lies  at  the  level  of  its  own  bottom,  which  runs  off,  and  is  replaced  by 
that  which  was  immediately  above  it.  And  on  account  of  this  ope- 
ration, which  we  have  before  explained,  it  is  necessary  in  retentive 
soils,  in  which  friction  is  greater  than  in  porous,  to  have  the  drains 
deeper,  in  order  to  lower  the  water  table  to  the  same  extent  A 
column  of  six  inches  may  suffice  to  push  water  from  the  intermedi- 
ate point  between  two  drains  in  a  porous  soil,  and  it  may  require  a 
12-inch  column  in  a  retentive.  In  that  case  the  drain  in  the  reten- 
tive soil  must  be  six  inches  deeper  than  in  the  porous.  Ignorance 
says :  Drain  shallower  because  the  soil  is  retentive.  Experience 
and  reason  say :  Drain  deeper.  We  may  here  notice,  that  in  clay 
lands  the  portion  within  one  to  two  feet  of  the  surface  is  almost 
always  more  retentive  than  that  which  lies  below;  simply,  we  appre- 
hend, because  its  particles  have  been  comminuted  and  packed  close 
by  the  alternate  influences  of  wet  and  dry,  heat  and  cold.  When 
dried  below  by  drains,  and  above  by  evaporation,  it  is  certain  to 
crack  and  become  permeable ;  and  this  operation  may,  if  necessary, 
be  assisted  by  subsoiling  or  other  artificial  means. 

"  Smith,  of  Deanston,  first  called  prominent  attention  to  the  fertil- 
izing effects  of  rain  filtered  through  land,  and  to  evils  produced  by 
allowing  it  to  flow  off  the  surface.  Any  one  will  see  how  much 
more  effectually  this  benefit  wjll  be  attained,  and  this  evil  avoided, 
by  a  4-feet  than  by  a  2-feet  drainage.  The  latter  can  only  prepare 
two  feet  of  soil  for  the  reception  and  retention  of  rain,  which  two 
feet,  being  saturated,  will  reject  more,  and  the  surplus  must  run  off 
the  surface,  carrying  whatever  it  can  find  with  it.  A  4-feet  drainage 
will  be  constantly  tending  to  have  four  feet  of  soil  ready  for  the  re- 
ception of  rain,  and  it  will  take  much  more  rain  to  saturate  four  feet 
than  two.  Moreover,  as  a  gimlet  hole  bored  four  feet  from  the  sur- 
face of  a  barrel  filled  with  water  will  discharge  much  more  in  a 
given  time  than  a  similar  hole  bored  at  the  depth  of  two  feet,  so  will 
a  4-feet  drain  discharge  in  a  given  time  much  more  water  than  a 
drain  of  two  feet.  One  is  acted  on  by  a  4-feet,  and  the  other  by  a 
2-feet  pressure." 


294  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

The  controversy  between  deep  drains  and  shallow  drains 
induced  a  great  many  experiments  to  be  made.  Among 
these  experimenters  was  Lord  Wharncliffe,  who  adopted 
a  kind  of  compromise  system,  combining  four  feet  and 
two  feet  drains. 

Lord  Wharncliffe  states  his  principles  as  follows,  and 
calls  his  method  the  combined  system  of  deep  and  shallow 
drainage : 

"In  order  to  secure  the  full  effect  of  thorough  drainage  in  clays, 
it  is  necessary  that  there  should  be  not  only  well-laid  conduits  for 
the  water  which  reaches  them,  but  also  subsidiary  passages  opened 
through  the  substance  of  the  close  subsoil,  by  means  of  atmospheric 
heat,  and  the  contraction  which  ensues  from  it.  The  cracks  and 
fissures  which  result  from  this  action,  are  reckoned  upon  as  a  cer- 
tain and  essential  part  of  the  process. 

"  To  give  efficiency,  therefore,  to  a  system  of  deep  drains  beneath 
a  stiff  clay,  these  natural  channels  are  required.  To  produce  them, 
there  must  be  a  continued  action  of  heat  and  evaporation.  If  we 
draw  off  effectually  and  constantly  the  bottom  water  from  beneath 
the  clay  and  from  its  substance,  as  far  as  it  admits  of  percolation, 
and  by  some  other  means  provide  a  vent  for  the  upper  water,'  which 
needs  no  more  than  this  facility  to  run  freely,  there  seems  good 
reason  to  suppose  that  the  object  may  be  completely  attained,  and 
that  we  shall  remove  the  moisture  from  both  portions  as  effectually 
as  its  quantity  and  the  substance  will  permit.  Acting  upon  this 
view,  then,  after  due  consideration,  I  determined  to  combine  with 
the  fundamental  four  feet  drains  a  system  of  auxiliary  ones  of  much 
less  depth,  which  should  do  their  work  above,  and  contribute  their 
share  to  the  wholesome  discharge,  while  the  under-current  from 
their  more  subterranean  neighbors  should  be  steadily  performing 
their  more  difficult  duty. 

"  I  accomplished  this,  by  placing  my  four  feet  drains  at  a  distance 
of  from  eighteen  to  twenty  yards  apart,  and  then  leading  others  into 
them,  sunk  only  to  about  two  feet  beneath  the  surface  (which  ap- 
peared, upon  consideration,  to  be  sufficiently  below  any  conceivable 
depth  of  cultivation),  and  laying  these  at  a  distance  from  each  other 
of  eight  yards.  These  latter  are  laid  at  an  acute  angle  with  the 
main  drains,  and  at  their  mouths  are  either  gradually  sloped  down- 
ward to  the  lower  level,  or  have  a  few  loose  stones  placed  in  the 


DEPTH   OF   DRAINS.  295 

same  intervals  between  the  two,  sufficient  to  insure  the  perpendicu- 
lar descent  of  the  upper  stream  through  that  space,  which  can  never 
exceed,  or,  indeed,  strictly  equal,  the  two  additional  two  feet." 

Speaking  of  the  Wharncliffe  system,  Gisborne  remarks  : 

"Were  I  to  adopt  his  lordship's  system,  I  must  abandon,  1st,  the 
principle  of  depth;  and  2d.,  the  principle  of  direction;  and  if  I 
abandoned  those  two  principles,  I  had  much  better  put  this  treatise 
into  the  fire  than  send  it  to  Mr.  Murray  for  publication." 

Alderman  Mechi,  speaking  of  deep  drainage,  says: 

"Ask  nineteen  farmers  out  of  twenty,  who  hold  strong  clay  land, 
and  they  will  tell  you  it  is  of  no  use  placing  deep  four  foot  drains 
in  such  soils — the  water  can  not  get  in;  a  horse's  foot-hole  (without 
an  opening  under  it)  will  hold  water  like  a  basin ;  and  so  on.  Well, 
five  minutes  after,  you  tell  the  same  farmers  you  propose  digging  a 
cellar,  well  bricked,  six  or  eight  feet  deep;  what  is  their  remark? 
*  Oh !  it 's  of  no  use  your  making  an  underground  cellar  in  our  soil, 
you  can't  keep  the  water  OUT  !'  Was  there  ever  such  an  illustration 
of  prejudice  as  this  ?  What  is  a  drain  pipe  but  a  small  cellar  full 
of  air  ?  Then,  again,  common  sense  tells  us,  you  can't  keep  a  light 
fluid  under  a  heavy  one.  You  might  as  well  try  to  keep  a  cork 
under  water,  as  to  try  and  keep  air  under  water.  '  Oh !  but  then  our 
soil  is  n't  porous.'  Tf  not,  how  can  it  hold  water  so  readily  ?  1  am 
led  to  these  observations  by  the  strong  controversy  I  am  having  with 
some  Essex  folks,  who  protest  that  I  am  mad,  or  foolish,  for  placing 
1-inch  pipes,  at  four  feet  depth,  in  strong  clays.  It  is  in  vain  I  refer 
to  the  numerous  proofs  of  my  soundness,  brought  forward  by  Mr. 
Parkes,  engineer  to  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  and  confirmed 
by  Mr.  Pusey.  They  still  dispute  it.  It  is  in  vain  I  tell  them  I  can 
not  keep  the  rainwater  out  of  socketed  pipes,  twelve  feet  deep,  that 
convey  a  spring  to  my  farm-yard.  Let  us  try  and  convince  this 
large  class  of  doubters  ;  for  it  is  of  national  importance.  Four  feet 
of  good  porous  clay  would  afford  a  far  better  meal  to  some  strong 
bean,  or  other  tap  roots,  than  the  usual  six  inches ;  and  a  saving 
of  $4  to  $5  per  acre,  in  drainage,  is  no  trifle. 

"The  shallow,  or  non-drainers,  assume  that  tenacious  subsoils  are 
impervious  or  non-absorbent  This  is  entirely  an  erroneous  assump- 
tion. If  soils  were  impervious,  how  could  they  get  wet? 

"  I  assert,  and  pledge  my  agricultural  reputation  for  the  fact,  that 
there  are  no  earths  or  clays  in  this  kingdom,  be  they  ever  so  tena- 


296  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

cious,  that  will  not  readily  receive,  filter,  and  transmit  rain  water  to 
drains  placed  5  or  more  feet  deep. 

"  A  neighbor  of  mine  drained  20  inches  deep  in  strong  clay ;  the 
ground  cracked  widely ;  the  contraction  destroyed  the  tiles,  and  the 
rains  washed  the  surface  soil  into  the  cracks  and  choked  the  drains. 
He  has  since  abandoned  shallow  draining. 

"  When  I  first  began  draining,  I  allowed  myself  to  be  overruled  by 
my  obstinate  man,  Pearson,  who  insisted  that,  for  top  water,  2  feet 
was  a  sufficient  depth  in  a  veiny  soil.  1  allowed  him  to  try  the  ex. 
periment  on  two  small  fields ;  the  result  was,  that  nothing  prospered  ; 
and  I  am  re-draining  those  fields  at  one  half  the  cost,  5  and  6  feet 
deep,  at  intervals  of  70  and  80  feet. 

"I  found  iron-sand  rocks,  strong  clay,  silt,  iron,  etc.,  and  an  enor- 
mous quantity  of  water,  all  below  the  2-feet  drains.  This  accounted 
at  once  for  the  sudden  check  the  crops  always  met  with  in  May, 
when  they  wanted  to  send  their  roots  down,  but  could  not,  without 
going  into  stagnant  water." 

Good  results  are  always  obtained  from  three  feet  drains, 
and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  results  would  be  more 
permanent  with  four  feet  drains.  Where  drains  at  three 
feet  deep  will  accomplish  all  practical  purposes  for  a  pe- 
riod of  twenty-five  or  thirty  years,  it  will  require  very 
strong  arguments  indeed  to  induce  the  farmers  to  drain 
to  the  depth  of  four  feet. 

In  this  country,  every  farmer,  as  a  general  thing,  owns 
the  land  he  cultivates,  and  in  a  majority  of  instances  has 
earned,  with  his  own  hands,  every  dollar  that  he  paid  for 
the  farm  and  its  improvements.  In  an  improvement  so 
permanent  as  underdraining  proposes  to  be,  the  farmer 
"counts  the  cost"  very  closely  and  very  frequently,  be- 
fore commencing  it,  and  if  he  is  fully  satisfied  that  good 
results  will  attend  his  efforts,  when  draining  at  a  depth 
of  three  feet,  at  an  expense  equal  to  three  fourths  of  the 
amount  that  draining  four  feet  would  cost,  scarcely  any 
argument  would  induce  him  to  drain  at  a  depth  of  the 
additional  foot.  And  the  farmer  is  fully  justified  in  this 
course,  in  the  Middle  and  Western  states.  Landed  estates 


DEPTH   OP  DRAINS.  297 

change  hands  very  rapidly  in  this  country.  Suppose  a 
farmer  incurs  a  debt  of  $1000,  for  any  improvement  over 
and  above  his  immediate  means.  He  can  not  mortgage 
his  "  crops  in  the  ground,"  to  secure  this  amount,  be- 
cause .drought,  hail,  insects,  or  other  adversities  beyond 
his  control  may  destroy  them ;  he  can  not  mortgage  his 
sheep,  because  dogs  may  kill  them,  nor  his  cattle,  because 
there  is  a  possibility  that  they  may  die  of  pleuro-pneu- 
monia,  trembles,  murrain,  or  a  dozen  other  diseases  ;  so 
that  no  other  resource  is  left  than  to  mortgage  the  farm 
itself.  Should  the  mortgage  mature,  and  crops  be  short, 
or  prices  unremunerative,  the  creditor  can  foreclose  and 
the  farmer  be  sold  by  the  sheriff,  in  one  hundred  days  or 
less.  This  is  no  fancy  sketch;  Ohio  farmers  have  so  fre- 
quently witnessed  the  fate  of  neighboring  farmers,  in  this 
respect,  that  they  have  become  exceedingly  cautious  so 
far  as  involving  themselves  in  indebtedness  is  concerned. 
In  England  or  Germany,  where  lands  seldom  pass  out 
of  the  hands  of  the  family,  even  if  the  proprietor  is  ab- 
solutely bankrupt,  larger  amounts  can  be  hazarded  in 
improvements,  without  incurring  the  risk  of  losing  the 
farm.  In  those  countries  they  may  insist  on  draining 
at  four  feet  as  a  minimum  depth.  For  reasons  already 
given,  we  believe  the  minimum  will  be  determined  by 
each  man  for  himself,  without  regard  to  system  or  theory, 
on  the  following  basis,  viz. :  to  lay  the  tile  at  such  a  depth 
that  neither  the  plow  nor  subsoil  plow  will  interfere  with 
it,  and  that  it  will  be  beyond  the  range  of  frost.  We 
think  that  these  two  points,  namely,  beyond  the  range  of 
the  frost,  and  out  of  reach  of  the  subsoil  plow,  will  deter- 
mine the  depth  of  drains  in  more  instances,  in  this  coun- 
try, than  all  the  illustrations  that  English  or  German 
draining  engineers  can  adduce  from  experience  in  favor 
of  very  deep  draining. 


298  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

It  is  not  an  uncommon  phenomenon  to  find  the  earth,  in 
cultivated  fields,  consisting  of  loamy  soils,  frozen  to  the 
depth  of  14  to  16  inches.  In  a  cemetery  we  once  saw  a 
loamy  clay  frozen  to  the  depth  of  22  inches.  Under- 
drained  soils  always  freeze  considerably  deeper  than  un- 
drained  ones.  If  then  the  soil  in  a  field  freezes  to  the 
depth  of  16  inches,  it  is  safe  to  infer  that  if  the  field 
is  well  underdrained,  the  frost  will  find  its  way  down 
fully  two  feet.  We  would  not  advise  any  one  to  under- 
drain  at  a  depth  less  than  30  inches,  and  where  the  fall, 
and  pecuniary  means  will  warrant,  we  would  insist  that  3 
feet  should  be  considered  the  minimum,  in  all  soils  requir- 
ing uriderdraining. 

The  day  is  not  far  distant  when  subsoiling  will  be  much 
more  generally  practiced.  Improvements  seldom  termin- 
ate with  the  initiatory  step,  and  the  man  who  is  sufficiently 
convinced  of  the  importance  of  underdraining,  and  puts 
it  in  practice  on  his  farm,  will  not  hesitate  to  use  the  sub- 
soil plow,  and  tile  laid  at  a  depth  less  than  30  inches,  will 
not  probably  be  beyond  the  reach  of  this  plow. 

The  difference  in  cost  between  a  three  and  a  four  feet 
drain  is  considerably  more  than  one  would  at  first  sup- 
pose. A  good  English  ditcher,  in  ordinary  clay  soil,  will 
make  eight  rods  of  three  feet  drain  per  day,  but  will  not 
make  more  than  five  rods  of  four  feet  in  the  same  time — 
in  fact,  he  seldom  will  make  over  four.  To  sink  a  three 
feet  drain  one  foot  lower,  will  cost  nearly  as  much  for  the 
last  foot  as  for  the  preceding  three — for  reasons  that 
every  practical  man  will  at  once  understand.  Drains  for 
tile  are  narrowed  from  the  top  to  the  bottom — they  are 
generally  14  to  18  inches  wide  at  the  top,  and  four  inches 
only,  or  just  wide  enough  to  admit  the  tile,  at  the  bottom. 
Now,  although  the  last  foot  in  a  four  feet  drain  contains 
no  more  earth  to  be  removed  than  the  last  foot  in  a 


DEPTH   OF   DRAINS.  299 

three  feet  drain,  yet  it  is  a  foot  loiver,  and  must  conse- 
quently be  thrown  a  foot  higher  up,  without  taking  into 
account  the  pile  of  earth  already  excavated  on  which  or 
over  which  this  last  foot  must  be  thrown. 

When  thorough  drainage  was  first  introduced  into  Scot- 
land, it  is  said  that  10,000  miles  of  drains  were  laid,  at  a 
depth  of  two  feet,  when  it  was  discovered  that  this  depth 
was  not  sufficient.  In  England  large  tracts  were  laid  with 
tile  at  12  to  18  inches  deep.  Of  course  the  experiment- 
ers were  gratified  with  the  success  which  crowned  their 
efforts — the  land  was  in  a  tillable  condition  early  in  the 
seasons,  and  the  surplus  waters  removed.  But  now  the 
opposite  extreme  is  advocated,  and  Alderman  Mechi  has 
gone  so  far  as  to  make  some  drains  14  feet  deep ! 

So  far  as  draining  the  surface  water,  or  the  water  fall- 
ing in  the  shape  of  rain  or  snow  is  concerned,  the  Alder- 
man says  : 

"  After  all  that  has  been  said  and  written  on  the  subject,  I  have 
arrived  at  the  following  conclusions : 

"  1.  That  Mr.  Parkes'  statement  is  a  convincing  proof  that  one-inch 
pipes  (without  stones,  straw  or  brushes)  placed  four  feet  deep,  at 
intervals  of  thirty  feet,  will  effectually  and  permanently  drain  the 
heaviest  soils  of  the  utmost  quantity  of  surface  water  that  can  possi- 
bly fall,  at  a  cost  of  from  £2  to  £3  per  acre.  That  in  mixed  soils, 
the  one-inch  pipes,  four  feet  deep  and  fifty  feet  apart,  will  perfectly 
drain  such  soils,  at  a  cost  of  about  45s.  per  acre. 

"  2.  That  although  those  drains  do  not,  the  first  year  after  being 
made,  act  so  effectually  as  stones  with  pipes  on  my  plan,  which  carry 
off  the  water  at  once ;  still  the  immense  difference  in  cost,  and  greater 
depth,  render  Mr.  Parkes'  plan  by  far  most  desirable. 

"  3.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is  the  depth  of  the  drain  which 
regulates  the  escape  of  the  surface  water  in  a  given  time ;  regard 
being  had,  as  respects  extreme  distances,  to  the  nature  of  the  soil, 
and  a  due  capacity  of  the  pipe.  The  deeper  the  drain,  even  in  the 
strongest  soils,  the  quicker  the  water  escapes.  This  is  an  astounding 
but  certain  fact 

"  4.  That  deep  and  distant  drains,  where  a  sufficient  fall  can  bo 


300  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

obtained,  are  by  far  the  most  profitable,  by  affording  to  the  roots  of 
plants  a  greater  range  for  food. 

"  5.  That  had  I  to  redrain  my  heavy  land,  I  should  do  so,  at  least 
four  feet  deep,  with  inch-pipes  at  intervals  of  thirty  feet,  carrying 
each  pipe  with  the  fall  of  the  land  direct  to  an  open  ditch  of  ample 
capacity.  I  should  thus  economize  several  open  ditches  on  my  farm, 
which  are  at  present  a  waste  of  ground.  Each  drain  would  thus  be 
its  own  leader. 

"  I  should  place  the  pipes  in  the  drains  without  stones,  or  other 
matter,  merely  covering  them  with  the  clay  itself,  leaving  the  drains 
open  as  long  as  possible,  as  practiced  by  Mr.  Hammond.  I  should 
thus  save  £7  per  acre  on  the  cost  of  my  draining,  and  have  a  greater 
depth  of  soil.  The  loss  would  be  the  difference  between  a  perfect 
and  imperfect  drainage  the  first  two  years. 

"In  conclusion,  I  consider  the  balance  of  evidence,  when  stones 
and  pipes  are  used,  is  in  favor  of  the  pipe  being  placed  at  the 
bottom." 


CHAPTER    IV. 


DISTANCE  BETWEEN  DRAINS. 

A  RULE  formerly  adopted  in  England,  that  "  the  dis- 
tance between  parallel  drains  may  be  increased  propor- 
tionably  with  their  depth ;  and  that  drains  may  be  laid  as 
many  perches  apart  as  they  are  feet  deep  " — is  no  longer 
regarded  as  being  correct.  There  are  so  many  different 
kinds  of  soil  that,  no  general  rule  can  be  given  which  will 
be  alike  applicable  to  all ;  but  each  kind  must  be  dealt 
with  according  to  its  inherent  qualities.  As  a  general 
thing,  a  depth  of  four  feet  for  clay  soils,  appears  to  be 
uniformly  adopted  in  England  and  Germany;  but  this  is, 
perhaps,  deeper  than  those  who  desire  to  drain  in  this 
country  can  afford  to  go,  on  account  of  the  increased  cost 
of  the  last  foot  in  depth. 

The  distance  between  the  minor  drains,  in  thorough 
draining,  depends  on  various  circumstances,  such  as  their 
depth,  and  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  subsoil.  The  greater 
the  depth,  the  greater  may  be  the  distance ;  the  more 
clayey  and  tenacious  the  soil,  the  nearer  should  the  minor 
drains  be  placed.  On  stiff  clay  soils,  the  distance  should 
be  less  than  a  rod  and  a  half;  on  loose  soils,  resting  on 
clay,  a  drain  every  two  rods  will  be  sufficient. 

A  system  was  at  one  time  advocated  of  digging  experi- 
mental or  "  trial  holes"  and  regulating  the  depth  accord- 
ing to  the  degree  of  moisture,  but  this  produced  such  very 
variable  results,  both  with  regard  to  depth  of  drains  and 
distance  between  them,  as  to  afford  no  reliable  data  for  a 
general  system.  These  experimental  holes  gave  rise,  in 
the  hands  of  Joshua  Trimmer  (celebrated  as  the  author 

(301) 


302  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

of  a  very  comprehensive  treatise  on  ''Practical  Geology 
and  Mineralogy  "),  to  the  noted  Keythorpe  system  of  un- 
derdraining.  In  one  of  his  pamphlets  defending  the  sys- 
tem, Mr.  Trimmer  says : 

"  The  peculiarities  of  the  Keythorpe  system  of  draining  consist 
in  this — that  the  parallel  drains  are  not  equidistant,  and  that  they 
cross  the  line  of  the  greatest  descent.  The  usual  depth  is  three  and 
a  half  feet,  but  some  are  as  deep  as  five  and  six  feet.  The  depth 
and  width  of  interval  are  determined  by  digging  trial  holes,  in  order 
to  ascertain  not  only  the  depth  at  which  the  bottom  water  is  reached, 
but  the  bight  to  which  the  water  rises  in  the  holes,  and  the  distance 
at  which  a  drain  will  lay  the  hole  dry.  In  sinking  these  holes,  clay 
banks  are  found  with  hollows  or  furrows  between  them,  which  are 
filled  with  a  more  porous  soil. 

"  The  next  object  is  to  connect  these  furrows  by  drains  laid  across 
them.  The  result  is,  that  as  the  furrows  and  ridges  here  run  along 
the  fall  of  the  ground,  which  I  have  observed  to  be  the  case  gen- 
erally elsewhere,  the  submains  follow  the  fall,  and  the  parallel  drains 
cross  it  obliquely. 

u  The  intervals  between  the  parallel  drains  are  irregular,  varying, 
in  the  same  field,  from  14  to  21,  31,  and  59  feet.  The  distances  are 
determined  by  opening  the  diagonal  drains  at  the  greatest  distance 
from  the  trial  holes  at  which  experience  has  taught  the  practica- 
bility of  its  draining  the  hole.  If  it  does  not  succeed  in  accom- 
plishing the  object,  another  drain  is  opened  in  the  interval.  It  has 
been  found,  in  many  cases,  that  a  drain  crossing  the  clay  banks  and 
furrows  takes  the  water  from  holes  lying  lower  down  the  hill;  that 
is  to  say,  it  intercepts  the  water  flowing  to  them  through  these  sub- 
terranean channels.  The  parallel  drains,  however,  are  not  invari- 
ably laid  across  the  fall.  The  exceptions  are  on  ground  where  the 
fall  is  very  slight,  in  which  case  they  are  laid  along  the  line  of 
greatest  descent.  On  such  grounds  there  are  few  or  no  clay  banks 
and  furrows." 

Another  English  doctrine  was,  that  parallel  drains  may 
be  laid  as  many  rods  distant  from  each  other  as  they  are 
feet  deep.  Thus,  if  the  drains  are  four  feet  deep,  they 
may  be  laid  four  rods  apart.  This  doctrine  is  now  re- 
jected as  being  incorrect — at  least  for  clay  soils.  It  is 


DISTANCE    BETWEEN    DRAINS.  303 

not  probable  that  any  criterion  other  than  such  as  experi- 
ence may  establish,  can  be  given  to  determine  the  distance 
which  minor  drains  should  be  apart.  Those  who  assert 
that  the  distance  between  drains  depends  entirely  upon^ 
the  depth,  take  as  a  basis  the  direction  formed  by  the 
water  to  the  drains,  for  they  say,  "  The  deeper  the  pipes, 
the  greater  may  the  distance  be  between  them,  and  yet 
afford  the  water  the  same  angle  of  outlet." 

This  appears  somewhat  probable,  but  when  we  recur  to 
hydrostatic  laws,  the  assertion  will  perhaps  lose  its  entire 
value. 

The  proper  distance  between  the  drains  depends  upon 
the  space  between  the  particles  of  the  soil  entirely ;  that 
is,  upon  the  porosity  of  the  earth.  The  reasons  which 
induce  this  opinion  are  as  follows : 

The  water  existing  in  the  earth  forms  a  mutually-ad- 
hering mass  of  its  particles,  which,  in  a  surface  which 
may  be  desiccated  by  a  system  of  drains,  commonly  stands 
on  a  level,  with,  perhaps,  slight  differences  determined  by 
local  conditions  of  the  soil. 

The  function  of  drains  is  to  remove  that  part  of  this 
mass  of  water  which  lies  so  near  the  surface  as  to  be 
injurious  to  the  cultivated  crop. 

Now,  if  two  drains  of  like  depth  are  placed  parallel  in 
the  earth,  to  intercept  a  portion  of  the  water  contained, 
the  following  conditions  relatively  arise : 

The  water  below  the  drains,  which  can  not  be  with- 
drawn by  them,  forms  a  resisting  substratum  which  pre- 
vents the  further  sinking  of  the  water  above  them.  But 
to  this  the  drains  afford  conduits  in  which  it  is  compelled 
to  find  its  way  between  the  particles  of  the  soil. 

The  specific  gravity  of  the  water  which  impels  it  to 
sink  toward  the  center  of  the  earth,  determines  the  sink- 
ing of  the  whole  mass  into  the  conduits,  until  a  level  is 


304  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

reached,  but  this  can  not  take  place  with  the  water  above 
the  pipes. 

The  stratum  of  water  beneath  the  pipes  is,  at  the  same 
time,  of  great  importance,  because  it  forms  in  the  drained 
surface  the  foundation,  so  to  say,  upon  which  the  water 
to  be  drained  rests,  and  gravity  being  exerted,  causes  the 
flow  in  a  lateral  direction,  having  no  other  impediment 
to  overcome  than  friction  among  the  earth  particles.  The 
original  angle  of  the  water  line  with  regard  to  the  pipes 
is  a  matter  of  less  importance. 

Accordingly,  the  known  hydrostatic  law,  u  every  con- 
nected mass  of  water  stands  at  a  uniform  level,"  could 
not  exist  were  it  not  for  the  friction  which  the  water 
must  overcome  in  its  passage  to  the  drains. 

Again,  as  the  greater  or  less  friction  is  dependent  upon 
the  greater  or  less  proximity  of  the  particles  of  the  soil, 
this  alone  is  a  measure  of  the  proper  distance  of  the 
drains  from  each  other ;  that  is,  they  must  be  placed  at 
such  distances  from  each  other  that  the  friction  can  not 
neutralize  the  motive  pow'er  (in  this  case,  specific  gravity). 

We  base  this  assertion  upon  the  doctrine  of  physics, 
that  adhesion  exerts  its  influence  as  soon  as  it  is  stronger 
than  the  gravity  which  carries  the  adhering  body  down- 
ward. 

Therefore,  if  the  porosity  of  the  soil  affords  drainage 
capacity  which  may  be  represented  by  a  given  triangle, 
the  length  of  the  sides  of  which  represent  the  depth  of 
drain  and  requisite  distance  apart,  it  would  be  a  needless 
expenditure  to  place  the  drains  nearer  together  than  the 
base  of  the  triangle  of  indication,  or  to  lay  them  deeper 
than  such  base  requires  to  drain  a  given  space. 

The  objection  which  may  be  urged  to  this  principle, 
that  a  greater  angle  contains  a  greater  mass  of  water,  and 
is  thus  calculated  to  remove  it  more  rapidly  and  certainly, 


DISTANCE   BETWEEN   DRAINS.  305 

as  gravity  is  the  motive  power,  is  not  tenable,  because, 
first,  the  lesser  amount  of  water  in  a  shallow  triangle  re- 
quires less  time  to  flow  off;  and  on  the  other  hand,  there 
is  much  less  friction  to  overcome  than  in  a  deeper  triangle 
of  the  same  breadth  or  base.  This,  too,  is  a  matter  of 
importance,  as  even  when  the  water  between  the  particles 
of  soil  is  conjoined  to  form  one  mass,  the  friction  is  a  very 
powerful  hindrance  to  the  efflux  of  the  water,  as  may  be 
learned  from  the  experiments  referred  to  below.  But  if 
a  simple,  single  infraction  of  the  watercourse  operate  so 
powerfully  upon  its  efflux,  how  much  more  must  this  be 
the  case  in  the  millions  of  curvatures  determined  in  its 
passage  of  efflux  by  the  relations  of  the  particles  of  the 
soil  ? 

Here  it  still  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  we  speak  only 
of  sinkages  which  must  first  take  place  in  the  soil  before 
the  water  reaches  the  pipes.  The  soil  is  more  readily 
permeable  than  the  subsoil,  and  if  that  be  one  fourth  foot 
deep,  the  water  will  have  traversed  one  third  of  its 
course  when  it  reaches  the  latter,  in  case  the  drains  are 
three  and  a  half  feet  deep  ;  only  one  fourth  of  the  course 
will  have  been  passed  over  when  they  are  five  feet  deep. 

Now,  if  it  be  objected  that  we  have  said  that  gravity  is 
the  motive  power,  and  we  must  place  the  drains  so  far 
apart  as  to  afford  the  water  force  (specific  gravity,  in  this 
case),  to  overcome  the  friction,  this  position  will  be  in 
opposition  to  the  foregoing  assertion  that,  in  the  supposed 
triangle,  where  the  distance  between  the  drains  is  the 
same,  but  the  depth  unequal,  the  gravity  of  the  water  is 
much  greater  in  the  deeper  triangle,  we  need  only  state 
that  the  formation  of  the  angle  of  efflux  under  considera- 
tion can  be  made  by  sinkage  only,  and  that  the  surface 
lying  between  the  extreme  points  of  the  triangle  is  the 
same  whatever  the  depth  of  the  drain,  and  consequently 
27 


306 


LAND    DRAINAGE. 


the  sinkage,  gravity  and  pressure  must  be  the  same  ;  but 
aside  from  this,  suppose  drains  at  equal  distances,  one 
pair  of  which  are  five  and  another  three  feet  deep,  if  all 
the  spaces  between  the  particles  of  earth  in  each  instance 
were  filled  with  water,  the  deeper  interspace  would  con- 
tain two  fifths  more  water,  and  there  would  be  two  fifths 
more  friction  to  overcome  in  its  efflux  to  the  drains,  and, 
as  already  stated,  the  porous  soil  in  the  shallow  inter- 
space affords  one  third,  and  in  the  deeper  only  one  fifth 
of  the  friction  in  the  mass  of  earth  to  be  overcome.  But 
as  the  entire  pressure  of  the  water  is  exerted  downward, 
the  gravity  of  the  upper  two  strata  of  water  being  equal 
for  equal  surfaces,  and  in  its  efflux  through  the  particles 
of  the  soil,  it  can  only  overcome  the  friction  by  equal 
pressure,  and  consequently,  in  similarly  constituted  soils, 
will  sink  with  equal  rapidity ;  and  from  this  it  follows 
that  the  water  of  one  stratum,  drained  at  five  feet  of  depth, 
will  sink  as  rapidly  as  the  corresponding  stratum  of  three 
feet,  provided  the  subsoil  above  the  five  feet  drain  be 
equally  permeable. 

But  if  the  subsoil  below  three  feet  be  less  permeable, 
the  superficial  strata  will  sink  much  more  slowly  than  to 
the  three  feet  drain,  because  the  friction  is  much  in- 
creased. 

It  is  our  opinion  that  this  latter  circumstance  is  greatly 
in  favor  of  the  shallower  drainage,  it  being  understood  to 
refer  only  to  temporary  humidity. 

In  reference  to  the  foregoing,  we  say  to  all  who  are 
enthusiastic  in  favor  of  deep  draining,  that  their  deep 
drain  theories  amount  to  nothing  in  all  those  cases  where 
the  drainage  of  temporary  water  is  intended.  The  mass 
of  water  falling  upon  a  given  superficies  is  the  same  what- 
ever be  the  depth  of  the  drain,  and  hence  the  distance  be- 
tween drains  must  be  the  same  to  carry  it  off,  and  it  must 


DISTANCE   BETWEEN  DRAINS.  307 

be  longer  in  sinking  to  the  deep  drain  than  the  shallow 
one.  What  evidence  have  deep  drainers  for  their  asser- 
tions ? 

Various  drains  have  been  made  where  the  fall  of  the 
earth  was  such  that  the  outlet  pipes  would  be  placed  no 
deeper  than  two  and  three  fourths  feet,  while  the  heading 
of  the  principal  drain  was  placed  at  five  feet  of  depth. 
Nevertheless,  the  effects  upon  all  parts  of  the  drained 
surface  were  equal — there  was  nowhere  a  difference  in  the 
condition  of  the  crop  cultivated  or  its  produce. 
.  This  fact  would  be  sufficient  to  confirm  the  assertion 
above  made,  but  we  will  call  the  attention  of  every  one 
who  has  drained  large  surfaces  to  one  circumstance  which 
most  clearly  verifies  this  statement. 

Deep  drainers  themselves  can  not  avoid,  on  account 
of  the  natural  inequalities  of  the  ground,  placing  the  pipes 
at  a  less  depth  in  some  places  than  in  the  remaining  por- 
tions of  the  drainings,  while  the  distance  between  the 
drains  remains  the  same.  Nevertheless,  the  unprejudiced 
will  certainly  find  no  difference  in  the  growth  or  produce 
of  the  crops. 

It  is  self-evident  that  the  depth  of  the  drains  must  be 
such  that  the  pipes  shall  be  protected,  from  every  external 
influence,  and  for  this  3  feet  of  depth  are  quite  sufficient. 

Besides,  whoever  has  done  much  drainage  will  certainly 
not  dispute  the  fact,  that  whatever  system  may  be  adopted, 
in  many  portions  of  the  county  it  will  be  found  imprac- 
ticable to  place  the  drains  at  a  depth  of  five  feet,  or  even 
four  feet,  for  want  of  sufficient  fall,  to  secure  a  prompt 
outlet  into  the  water  of  the  lakes,  rivers,  etc.,  which  re- 
ceive the  drained  water,  and  that  this  mutual  relation 
becomes  more  and  more  unfavorable  for  deep  drainers 
at  every  foot  of  increased  depth ;  so  that  in  all  drain  sys- 
tems only  about  25  per  cent,  can  have  an  average  of  five 


308  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

feet  depth,  10  per  cent.,  5J  feet,  and  only  5  per  cent. 
6  feet  depth,  on  account  of  the  outlet.  We  repeat  that 
the  angle  of  descent,  formed  by  water  in  its  efflux,  depends 
entirely  upon  the  distance  between  the  drains,  and  this 
again  upon  the  porosity  of  the  soil.  (See  Fig.  5,  page  99.) 

In  very  porous  soil  water  sinks  nearly  horizontally.  In 
all  compact  soils,  as  those  consisting  more  or  less  of  clay 
or  loam,  it  naturally  sinks  in  a  perpendicular  line  over 
the  pipes,  more  rapidly;  first,  because  earth  once  dug  up 
never  regains  its  original  compactness,  and  the  water  has 
less  friction  to  evercome;  and  secondly,  because  the  nat- 
ural law  of  gravity  is  in  a  vertical  or  perpendicular  di- 
rection. 

If,  now  the  stratum  of  water  lying  between  the  drains 
sinks  equally  rapidly  at  first,  it  has,  nevertheless,  greater 
friction  to  overcome,  which  will  be  greater  in  proportion 
to  the  distance  from  the  drain. 

The  earth  immediately  surrounding  the  drain  continues 
to  yield  its  humidity,  as  this  is  removed  by  the  drain,  and 
consequently  sloping  lines  of  efflux  will  be  found. l  We 
are  not  aware,  however,  that  these  can  be  determined  by 
deeper  or  shallower  drains,  but  it  appears  to  us  that  the 
greater  or  less  pitch  of  these  lines  is  to  be  measured  alone 
by  the  distance  between  the  drains.  This  has  reference, 
however,  only  to  those  masses  of  water  which  fall  imme- 
diately upon  the  surfaces  to  be  drained. 

When  water  has  been  conducted  from  a  higher  point, 
it  tends,  on  account  of  the  pressure  from  above,  to  raise 

l  The  older  the  drain  is  the  less  perceptible  will  be  this  appearance,  be- 
cause the  earth  directly  over  the  drain  necessarily  cast  out,  in  the  process 
of  construction,  becomes  gradually  more  and  more  compact,  even  though 
it  never  regains  its  original  solidity,  yet  its  porosity  constantly  diminishes 
with  time,  while  the  soil  of  the  interspaces  becomes  more  mellow,  and  the 
surface  of  the  water  will  be  drawn  off  toward  the  drains  much  more  hori- 
zontally than  in  newly  completed  drains. 


DISTANCE   BETWEEN   DRAINS.  309 

itself  again,  and  that  in  a  greater  degree  as  it  meets  with 
less  obstruction.  But  in  a  drained  surface,  obstruction  ceases 
when  the  rising  water  reaches  the  level  of  the  drain  pipe, 
as  it  then  finds  a  free  efflux,  and  to  this  point  all  the  force 
of  pressure  tends ;  but  when  the  water  has  once  been 
forced  into  the  drain,  the  law  of  gravity  in  the  given  case 
again  comes  into  action,  and  the  water  flows  immediately 
toward  the  discharge  of  the  pipe. 

It  is,  therefore,  very  important  to  determine  the  proper 
distance  between  the  drains. 

This  problem  has  always  appeared  to  me  as  one  of  the 
most  important  in  the  science  of  draining,  as  most,  or  we 
might  with  propriety  say,  all  the  success  of  a  drain  de- 
pends upon  its  solution. 

This  much  is  certain,  if  the  distance  be  too  great  the 
drain  either  does  not  operate  at  all,  or  its  effect  is  so  tardy 
that  it  does  no  good  to  the  crop ;  or  if  the  distance  be  too 
small  the  work  will  be  disproportionately  expensive.  To 
obviate  these  difficulties,  it  appeared  to  us  necessary  to 
examine  closely,  and  find  if  there  were  any  experiments, 
by  means  of  which  a  rule  for  distances,  according  to  dif- 
ferences of  soil,  could  be  determined.  We  have  found 
some  such  in  H.  Wauer's  work  on  drainage,  from  which 
we  translate  the  following : 

"  For  this  purpose  I  instituted  experimental  drains  in  similar  soil, 
at  unequal  distances,  and  observed  their  effect 

"  After  I  had  determined  the  distance  of  perfect  drainage  for  the 
given  soil,  I  took  this  as  a  basis  for  further  observation  and  experi- 
ments, and  proceeded  as  follows : 

"I  first  ascertained  the  amount  of  clay  contained  in  the  soil,  then 
desiccated  a  portion  of  this  in  an  oven.  I  then  filled  a  glass  tube  18 
inches  long,  two  thirds  full  of  this  soil,  and  covered  the  lower  end 
with  a  piece  of  thin  linen,  to  permit  water  to  flow  off  readily.  I 
then  added  a  certain  quantity  of  water,  and  marked  the  time  exr 


310  LAND   DRAINAGE.  - 

actly  when  it  had  all  escaped  at  the  lower  extremity  of  the  tube, 
minus  what  was  retained  by  the  force  of  cohesion. 

"  This  experiment  1  repeated  with  different  grades  of  soil,  and  noted 
carefully  the  difference  of  time  at  each  new  experiment.  I  thus 
found  that  loamy  earth,  containing  35  per  cent,  of  clay,  permitted 
the  passage  of  water  in  half  the  time  required  by  clay  soil  contain- 
ing 70  per  cent,  of  clay ;  that  loamy  sand,  with  15  per  cent,  of' clay, 
yielded  the  water  three  times  more  rapidly  than  clay  soil  of  70  per 
cent.,  etc.;  and  upon  this  I  based  the  calculation  of  the  distance 
proper  for  the  distance  apart  of  the  drains,  as  given  in  the  following 
table: 

1  In  clay  soil,     70    per  cent,  clay  in    2    rods, 

2  "  65  "  2        "      3  feet. 

3  "  60  "  2         "      6     " 

4  -a  55  K  3        "      9     " 

5  "  50  "  3        "    — 

6  loamy  soil     45  "  3        "     4    " 

7  "  40  "  3        "      8     " 

8  "  35  "  4        "    — 

9  "  30  "  4        "      6    " 

10  "  25  "  5        "    — 

11  loamy  sand    20  "  5        "      6     " 

12  "  15  "  6         "    — 

13  "  10  "  6        "     6     " 

14  sand  5  "  7        "    — 

15  in  sand  at          0  7         "      7     " 

16  in  granular  sand  .8        "     6     " 

"In  turf  and  moor  soils,  devoid  of  clay  or  muck,  the  calculation 
resulted  the  same  as  in  No.  12,  and  where  many  vegetable  remains 
existed,  as  in  No.  14. 

"In  calcareous  soils,  I  found  the  percentage  like  that  in  clay 
soils. 

"  In  the  experiments  afterward  instituted,  in  the  construction  of 
drains,  these  calculations  were  verified  exceedingly  well,  and  they 
have  been  the  basis  of  all  my  plans  since  then. 

"  That  departures  from  this  are  required,  for  draining  springs  and 
ponds,  is  naturally  to  be  supposed.  Such  cases  require  the  techni- 
cal knowledge  of  the  drainer,  and  do  not  permit  the  application  of 
fixed  rules." 

In  draining  meadows,  which  are  designed  to  be  used  as 


DISTANCE   BETWEEN   DRAINS.  '      311 

such,  still  a  rule  of  distance  is  difficult  to  give,  because 
stagnant  water  in  them  is  due  to  such  various  causes,  that 
it  would  be  difficult  to  meet  each  case  by  general  rules. 
If  the  soil  is  uniform,  and  if  the  water  be  temporarily  col- 
lected, the  calculation  may  be  made  according  to  the  rules 
given  by  Wauer,  for.  fields,  but  make  the  distances  about 
one  third  greater. 

In  most  cases,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  traverse  the  so- 
called  swales  with  single  drains.  We  recently  read  an 
essay  upon  draining  which  stated  that  meadows  should  be 
drained  in  the  same  manner  as  fields,  but  that  the  pipes 
should  be  smaller,  so  that  the  water  might  run  off  more 
slowly. 

That  would  be  sure  to  convert  a  meadow  into  a  swamp. 
The  pipes  being  filled,  the  remaining  water  would  be 
forced  into  the  ground,  there  to  remain. 

We  must  repeat,  that  too  great  a  distance  between 
drains,  takes  the  water  off  too  slowly,  and  no  good  is  ac- 
complished, because  the  interspace  shows  no  effect  of 
drainage,  and  nothing  is  left  but  the  expensive  method 
of  putting  down  intermediate  drains. 

According  to  John,1  the  following  distances,  in  the 
various  kinds  of  soil  named,  are  in  accordance  with  the 
latest  Gsrman  experience,  in  this  respect,  where  the  drains 
are  four  feet  deep. 

I.  Heavy  clay  soil, 20  to    24  feet 

II.  Clay  soil, 24  to    30     " 

III  Loamy  soil,  -  30  to    36     " 

IV.  Light  loamy  soil,     ...  48     " 

V.  Sandy  loamy  soil,        ....  60     " 

VI.  Very  light  soil,       -        -       '-        -        -  80  to  120    " 

Schb'nermark,  in  draining  in  Brunswick,  established  the 

•  Jahrbuch,  1854,  I,  74. 


312 


LAND    DRAINAGE. 


following  distances   and  depths  for  the  various  kinds  of 
soil: 


Soils. 

Drain  4 
feet  deep. 

Drain  3  feet 
6  in.  deep. 

Drain  3 
feet  deep. 

I.  Liine  soil  (soils  containing  from  30  to 

feot  apart. 

feet  apart. 

feet  apart. 

60  per  cent,  of  lime,  and  a  mixture  of 

sand,  clay  and  humus).    Clay  soil  con- 

taining 50  per  cent,  and  upward   of 

clay,  - 

24  to  32 

21  to  28 

18  to  24 

II.  Marl  soil  (containing  10    to   30  per 

cent,  of  lime,  and  is  mixed  with  clay, 

sand  and  humus), 

32  to  40 

28  to  35 

24  to  30 

III.    Loamy  soil,  containing   sand   and 

clay,  - 

40  to  48 

35  to  42 

30  to  36 

IV.  Sandy  loam,  containing  from  10  to 

30  per  cent,  of  sand, 

48  to  56 

42  to  49 

36  to  42 

V.  Loamy  sand,  containing  30  to  50  per 

cent,  of   sand,  and  humus   soil,  con- 

taining 30  to  50  per  cent,  of  humus, 

56  to  64 

49  to  56 

42  to  48 

VI.  Sandy  soil,  containing  50  to  70  per 

cent,  of  sand,  and   mixed  with  clay, 

humus,  marl,  etc.,     - 

64  to  72 

56  to  63 

48  to  84 

The  table  on  next  page,  copied  from  Henneberg's  Jahr- 
buch  Landivirthschaftj  shows  the  greatest  length  of  drain 
admissible,  according  to  the  fall  and  distance  between  the 
drains.  For  example,  the  drains  are  three  rods  apart, 
and  the  fall  is  one  inch  per  rod,  how  long  may  the  drain 
be  made  with  one  inch  tile?  Find  the  table  for  one  inch 
tile ;  then  under  the  figure  3  in  the  first  horizontal  col- 
umn (the  figures  in  this  column  indicate  the  width  be- 
tween the  drains  in  rods),  find  the  number  (1)  corres- 
ponding with  the  fall,  in  the  first  left  hand  vertical  col- 
umn (which  in  this  case  will  be  28)  ;  the  number  thus  in- 
dicated will  be  the  greatest  possible  length  that  the  drain 
can  be  made  to  be  effective.  Should  the  fall  be  3  inches 
per  rod,  the  drain  may  be  increased  to  50  rods;  or  if  1J 
inch  pipe  is  used,  and  the  fall  is  one  inch,  the  drain  may 
be  79  rods  in  length. 

From  this  table  it  will  be  seen  that  1J  inch  pipe  will 


DISTANCE   BETWEEN   DRAINS. 


313 


answer  for  almost  all  the  minor  drains  that  will  be  prob- 
ably made  in  this  country. 


<=„! 

~~z 

One  inch  pipe  tile. 

One  and  one  fourth  inch  pipe  tile. 

--.•3 

111 

t# 

2 

iy>  3 

3K 

4 

4K 

IK 

2 

2K  3 

3K 

4 

4^ 

1-16 

11 

8 

6 

5 

5 

4 

4 

23 

18 

14 

12 

10 

9 

8 

K 

17 

13 

10 

9 

7 

7 

6 

39 

29 

23 

19 

17 

15 

13 

K 

27 

20 

16 

13 

11 

10 

9 

46 

35 

28 

23 

20 

18 

16 

tt 

39 

29 

24 

19 

17 

15 

13 

67 

50 

40 

33 

29 

25 

23 

% 

49 

36 

29 

24 

21 

18 

16 

86 

64 

52 

43 

37 

32 

29 

i 

55 

41 

33 

28 

24 

21 

18 

99 

74 

59 

49 

42 

37 

33 

iK 

70 

53 

42 

35 

30 

26 

23 

125 

93 

75 

62 

53 

47 

42 

2 

83 

62 

50  1  41 

37 

31 

27 

145 

108 

87 

72 

62 

54 

48 

2K 

93 

69 

56 

46 

40 

35 

31 

163 

122 

98 

82 

70 

61 

54 

3 

100 

75 

60 

50 

43 

38 

33 

179 

134 

107 

89 

77 

67 

59 

3K 

109 

82 

66 

55 

47 

41 

37 

195 

146 

117 

97 

83 

73 

65 

4 

117 

88 

70 

59 

50 

44 

39  ' 

209 

157 

126 

105 

89 

78 

69 

4K 

126 

94 

76 

63 

54 

47  ' 

42 

222 

166 

133 

111 

95 

83 

74 

5 

133 

100 

80 

67 

57 

50 

44 

235 

176 

141 

118 

101 

88 

78 

6 

155 

116 

93 

77 

66 

58 

52 

259 

194 

155 

129 

111 

97 

86 

3.1 

=  I| 

One  and  one  half  inch  pipe  tile. 

One  and  three  fourths  inch  pipe  tile. 

lit 

IK 

2 

2K 

3 

3K  4 

4K 

1K|  2 

2K 

3 

3K 

4  |4K 

1-16 

32 

24 

19 

16 

14 

12 

10 

45 

34 

27 

23 

19 

17  1  15 

K 

52 

39 

31 

26 

22 

19 

17 

69 

51 

41 

34 

29 

26  j  23 

M 

80 

60 

48 

40 

37 

30 

27 

107 

80 

64 

54 

46 

40  i  36 

K 

109 

82 

66 

55 

47 

41 

39 

161 

120 

96 

80 

69 

60 

54 

% 

140 

105 

84 

70 

60 

52 

47 

203 

152 

121 

101 

87 

76 

68 

1 

157 

118 

94 

79 

67 

59 

52 

233 

175 

140 

117 

100 

87 

78 

IK 

200 

145 

120 

100 

86 

75 

67 

291 

218 

175 

146 

125 

109 

97 

2 

221 

165 

132 

1JO 

95 

83 

73 

341 

256 

205 

137 

146 

128 

114 

2K 

257 

192 

154 

128 

110 

96 

86 

390 

292 

234 

195 

167 

146 

130 

3 

286 

214 

172 

143 

123  107 

95 

418 

313 

251 

209 

179 

157 

139 

3K 

311 

233 

186 

155  j  133 

117 

104 

450 

337 

270 

225 

193 

169 

150 

4 

351 

248 

199 

166  !  142 

124 

110 

487 

365 

292 

244 

209 

184 

162 

4K 

352 

265 

212 

177 

151 

132 

118 

517 

388 

310 

259 

222 

194  172 

5 

371 

278 

223 

186 

159 

139 

124 

545 

408 

327 

272 

233 

204  184 

6 

399 

299 

239 

199 

171 

149 

133 

595 

446 

357 

297 

255 

223 

198 

As  the  cost  of  tile  for  draining  may,  perhaps,  determine 
the  distance  between  drains  with  some  persons,  in  absence 
of  any  experimental  or  scientific  reason,  we  have  deemed 
it  proper  in  this  place  to  say  a  few  words  about  the  cost 
of  tile,  and  to  give  a  table  from  which  the  number  of  tiles 
28 


314  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

necessary  to  drain  an  acre  at  several  distances  between 
the  drains. 

The  cost  of  tile  draining  is  made  up  of  three  items — the 
digging,  the  price  of  tiles  at  the  kiln,  and  the  expense  of 
hauling  them.  It  will  readily  be  seen  that  each  of  these 
may  vary  considerably,  and  the  total  cost  of  the  improve- 
ment be  influenced  accordingly. 

If  tiles  are  made  on  the  farm,  or  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
borhood, the  cost  of  hauling  is  reduced  to  its  lowest  figure. 
Where  they  must  be  drawn  several  miles,  the  trouble  and 
expense  are  great ;  five  hundred  of  the  smallest  size  being 
all  that  can  readily  and  safely  be  put  in  a  common  two- 
horse  wagon.  Taking  this  item  into  account,  the  desira- 
bleness of  concert  of  action  among  farmers  is  apparent; 
if  several  can  agree  to  enter  upon  such  improvements  at 
the  same  time,  they  may  manufacture  in  company,  or,  what 
is  better,  give  their  contracts  to  the  nearest  and  best  brick- 
maker,  and  get  the  tiles  made  at  the  most  convenient 
point.  Every  farmer  should  consider  it  his  interest  to 
sustain  any  tile  maker  who  has  enterprise  enough  to  com- 
mence the  manufacture  in  his  vicinity.  There  ought  to 
be  one  or  more  good  tile  yards  established  immediately  in 
every  township  in  the  state. 

The  price  of  tiles  must  vary  in  different  localities,  the 
cost  of  manufacture  depending  on  the  nature  of  the  clay, 
the  price  of  fuel  and  of  labor.  But  these  matters  relating 
to  the  manufacture  of  tiles  may  be  deferred  to  another 
time.  Tiles  are  at  present  sold  in  Ohio  at  prices  ranging 
from  $8  to  §12  per  1000  for  the  smallest  size,  or  two  inches 
in  bore.  Four  inch  tiles  are  about  double  the  cost  of  the 
two  inch ;  and  six  inch  tiles  are  about  double  the  cost  of 
the  four  inch.  A  thousand  tiles  of  ordinary  length  will 
lay  sixty  rods  ;  thus,  at  the  lowest  figure  stated  above,  the 
cost  of  tiles  ia  a  trifle  over  a  shilling  a  rod. 


DISTANCE   BETWEEN   DRAINS.  315 

The  cost  of  digging,  where  men  accustomed  to  the  work, 
and  proper  tools  can  be  obtained,  will  not  exceed  a  shilling 
a  rod  for  a  three  feet  drain.  The  cost  is  proportionally 
greater  for  deep  drains  than  for  shallow  ones ;  so  that  if 
the  depth  is  diminished  one  third,  the  price  should  be  less- 
ened one  half;  or,  if  the  depth  is  increased  a  third,  about 
half  the  original  price  should  be  added.  It  will  doubtless 
appear  to  some  that  such  prices  are  low,  compared  with 
what  they  have  been  used  to  pay  for  ditching ;  this  differ- 
ence arises  from  the  fact  that  not  more  than  a  third  of 
the  earth  is  removed  in  making  a  drain,  that  must  needs 
be  lifted  in  making  an  open  ditch  of  the  same  depth. 

The  cost  of  thorough  draining  will  depend,  of  course, 
on  the  frequency  of  the  drains.  At  two  rods  asunder, 
there  will  be  eighty  rods  to  the  acre ;  and  this,  at  the 
prices  already  stated,  or  two  shillings  a  rod,  will  amount 
to  §20.  To  this  it  will  sometimes  be  necessary  to  add  ten 
per  cent,  for  main  drains.  In  general,  about  one  tenth 
of  all  the  drains  in  a  field  are  main  drains,  and  made  at 
nearly  double  the  cost  of  the  minor  drains.  The  profit 
or  loss  of  underdraining,  at  such  prices,  will  next  be  con- 
sidered. 

Table  No.  1  presents,  in  the  first  column,  the  distance 
between  the  drains  in  feet ;  the  second  column  shows  the 
number  of  rods  of  drain  in  an  acre — always  supposing 
that  the  field  to  be  drained  is  a  square  one — that  is,  a 
rectangle,  having  the  opposite  sides  equal.  The  remain- 
ing columns  show  the  number  of  tile  of  the  different  lengths 
required  to  lay  the  drains  in  an  acre. 

Suppose  an  acre  is  to  be  drained,  with  the  distance  of 
20  feet  between  the  drains ;  find  the  number  20  in  the  first 
column ;  and  in  the  next  column,  opposite  20,  will  be  found 
the  number  of  rods  of  drain.  20  feet  apart,  in  an  acre ;  and 
in  the  fourth  column  will  be  found  the  number  (2,011)  of 


316 


LAND    DRAINAGE. 


tile,  13  inches  long — the  usual  length — required  for  the 
drains.  Now,  at  $8  per  1000,  the  tile  will  cost  $16  08; 
but,  if  the  drains  are  placed  30  feet  apart,  the  cost  of  tile 
will  be  $10  72  only. 


TABLE  NO.  1. 


Width 
be- 
tween 
drains. 
Feet. 

Length  of 
drains  per  acre, 
in  statute  rods 
of  5%  yards. 
Rods.  Yds. 

No.  of  Tiles  per  acre. 

Length 
12  in. 

Length 
13  in. 

Length 
14  in. 

Length 
15  in. 

Length 
16  in. 

Length 
18  m. 

9 

293  1% 

4840 

4468 

4149 

3872 

3630 

3227 

10 

264 

4356 

4021 

3734 

3485 

3267 

2904 

11 

240 

3960 

3656 

3395 

3168 

2970 

2640 

12 

220 

3630 

3351 

3112 

2904 

2723 

2420 

13 

203   % 

3351 

3094 

2873 

2681 

2514 

2234 

14 

188  3% 

3112 

2873 

2667 

2490 

2334 

2075 

15 

176 

3904 

2681 

2490 

2324 

2178 

1936 

16 

165 

2723 

2514 

2334 

2178 

2042 

1815 

17 

155  \yz 

2563 

2366 

2197 

2050 

1922 

1709 

18 

146  3% 

2420 

2234 

2075 

1936 

1815 

1614 

19 

138  5}4 

2293 

2117 

1966 

1835 

1720 

1529 

20 

132 

2178 

2011 

1867 

1743 

1634 

1452 

21 

125  4 

2075 

1915 

1778 

1660 

1556 

1383 

22 

120 

1980 

1828 

1698  ' 

1584 

1485 

1320 

23 

114  4^ 

1894 

1749 

1624 

1516 

1421 

1263 

24 

110 

1815 

1676 

1556 

1452 

1362 

1210 

25 

105  3% 

1743 

1609 

1494 

1394 

1307 

1162 

26 

101  3 

1676 

1547 

1137 

1341 

1257 

1117 

27 

97  4^ 

1614 

1490 

1383 

1291 

1210 

1076 

28 

94  1% 

1556 

1437 

1334 

1245 

1167 

1038 

29 

91   M 

1503 

1387 

1288 

1202 

1127 

1002 

30 

88 

1452 

1341 

1245 

1162 

1089 

968 

31 

85   % 

1406 

1298 

1205 

1125 

1054 

937 

32 

82  2M 

1362 

1257 

1167 

1089 

1021 

908 

33 

80 

1320 

1219 

1132 

1056 

990 

880 

34 

77  3^ 

1282 

1183 

1099 

1025 

961 

855 

35 

75  2& 

1245 

1149 

1067 

996 

934 

830 

36 

73  IX 

1210 

1117 

1038 

968 

908 

807 

37 

71  2 

1178 

1087 

1010 

942 

883 

785 

38 

69  2^ 

1147 

1059 

983 

918 

860 

765 

39 

67  3M 

1117 

1032 

958 

894 

838 

745 

40 

66 

1089 

1006 

934 

872 

817 

726 

41 

64  2% 

1063 

981 

911 

850 

797 

709 

42 

62  4% 

1038 

958 

889 

830 

778 

692 

43 

61  2M 

1014 

936 

869 

811 

760 

676 

44 

60 

990 

914 

849 

793 

743 

660 

45 

58  3% 

968 

894 

830 

775 

726 

646 

46 

57  2^ 

947 

875 

812 

758 

711 

632 

47 

55  1 

927 

857 

795 

742 

696 

618 

48 

55 

908 

838 

778 

727 

681 

605 

49 

53  4% 

889 

821 

762 

712 

667 

593 

DISTANCE   BETWEEN   DRAINS. 
TABLE  No.  1 — Continued. 


317 


Width 

Length  of 

No.  of  TUes  per  acre. 

be- 

drains per  acre, 

tween 

in  statute  rods, 

drains. 

of  5%  yards. 

Length 

Length 

Length 

Length 

Length 

Length 

Feet. 

Rods.      Yds. 

12  in. 

13  in. 

14  in. 

15  in. 

10  in. 

18  in. 

50 

52     4^ 

872 

805 

747 

697 

654 

581 

51 

51     4^ 

855 

787 

733 

684 

641 

570 

52 

50     4% 

838 

774 

719 

671 

629 

559 

53 

49    4>£ 

822 

759 

705 

658 

617 

548 

54 

48     5 

807 

745 

692 

646 

605 

538 

55 

48 

792 

732 

679 

634 

594 

528 

56 

47       % 

778 

719 

667 

623 

584 

519 

57 

46     1% 

765 

706 

656 

612 

574 

510 

58 

45    2% 

752 

694 

644 

601 

564 

501 

59 

44    4 

739 

682 

633 

591 

554 

492 

60 

44 

726 

671 

623 

581 

545 

484 

61 

43     IK 

715 

660 

613 

572 

536 

477 

62 

42    3# 

703 

649 

603 

563 

527 

469 

63 

41     5 

692 

639 

593 

554 

519 

461 

Table  No.  2  shows  the  number  of  tiles  of  the  length 
of  12,  13,  or  14  inches,  requisite  to  lay  any  number  of 
rods  of  drain,  from  one  rod  up  to  10,000  rods.  Suppose 
it  is  required  to  know  what  number  of  13  inch  tile  will 
be  required  to  lay  8,765  rods  of  drain.  From  the  table 
we  find  that 


5,000  rods  require 
3,000        « 
700        " 
65        « 


76154  tiles. 
45693     " 
10662    " 
990     " 


8,765 


133499     " 


318 


LAND    DRAINAGE. 
TABLE    NO.  2. 


Tiles  required  for  Drains. 

Tiles  required  for  Drains. 

Length 
of 
drains 
in  rods. 

Length 
of  tile 
12 
inches. 

Length 
of  tile 
13 
inches. 

Length 
of  tile 
14 
inches. 

Length 
of 
drains 
in  rods. 

Length 
of  tile 
12 
inches.. 

Length 
of  tile 
13 
inches. 

Length 
of  tite 
14 
inches. 

1 

17 

16 

15 

41 

677 

625 

580 

2 

33 

31 

29 

42 

693 

640 

594 

3 

50- 

46 

43 

43 

710 

655 

609 

4 

66 

61 

57 

44 

726 

671 

623 

5 

83 

77 

71 

45 

743 

686 

637 

6 

99 

92 

85 

46 

759 

701 

651 

7 

116 

107 

99 

47 

776 

716 

665 

8 

132 

122 

114 

48 

792 

732 

679 

9 

149 

138 

128 

49 

809 

747 

693 

10 

165 

153 

142 

50 

825 

762 

708 

11 

182 

168 

156 

51 

842 

777 

722 

12 

198 

183 

170 

52 

858 

792 

736 

13 

215 

198 

184 

53 

875 

808 

750 

14 

231 

214 

198 

54 

891 

823 

764 

15 

248 

229 

213 

55 

908 

838 

778 

16 

264 

244 

227 

56 

924 

853 

792 

17 

281 

259 

241 

57 

941 

869 

807 

18 

297 

275 

255 

58 

957 

884 

821 

19 

314 

290 

269 

59 

974 

899 

835 

20 

330 

305 

283 

60 

990 

914 

849 

21 

347 

320 

297 

61 

1007 

930 

863 

22 

363 

336 

312 

62 

1023 

945 

877 

23 

380 

351 

326 

63 

1040 

960 

891 

24 

396 

366 

340 

64 

1056 

975 

906 

25 

413 

381 

354 

65 

1073 

990 

920 

26 

429 

396 

368 

70 

1115 

1067 

990 

27 

446 

412 

382 

80 

1320 

1219 

1132 

28 

462 

427 

396 

90 

1485 

1371 

1273 

29 

479 

442 

411 

100' 

1650 

1524 

1415 

30 

495 

457 

425 

200 

3300 

3047 

2829 

31 

512 

473 

439 

300 

4950 

4570 

4243 

32 

528 

488 

453 

400 

6600 

6093 

5658 

33 

545 

503 

466 

500 

8250 

7616 

7072 

34 

561 

518 

481 

600 

9900 

9139 

8486 

35 

578 

534 

495 

700 

11550 

10662 

9900 

36 

594 

549 

510 

800 

13200 

12185 

1]315 

37 

611 

564 

524 

900 

14850 

13708 

12729 

38 

627 

579 

538 

1000 

16500 

15231 

14143 

39 

644 

594 

552 

3000 

49500 

45693 

42429 

40 

660 

610 

566 

5000 

82500 

76154 

70715 

Table  No.  3  shows  the  number  of  rods  in  drains  at 
distances  of  15  to  42  feet  apart,  in  tracts  of  l<and  from 
one  fourth  of  an  acre  to  100  acres;  and,  in  fact,  to  any 
number  of  acres  exceeding  100,  by  multiplication  or  ad- 


DISTANCE   BETWEEN   DRAINS. 


319 


dition.     Suppose  the  number  of  rods  of  drains  18  feet 
apart  in  a  tract  of  285  acres  be  required.    From  the  table  : 
.  ";*  14666  rods,  3f  yards  in  100  acres. 


7* 
If 
If 


il  200 
"  80 
"  5 


41798     "  "      "  285      " 

If  the  number  of  13  inch  tile  be  required,  by  referring 
to  Table  No.  2,  it  will  be  seen  that 

5000  rods  require    -        -        -        76154  tiles. 

8 


S 


1000 


40000  "    "    -   -   -   609232  ' 

15231  ' 

10662  < 

1371  ' 

122  * 

-  636618  ' 

TABLE  NO.  3.— LENGTH  OF  DRAINS. 
Distance  between  Drains  15  feet. 


Acres. 

Length  in  rods. 
Kods.   Yards. 

Acres. 

Length  in  rods. 
Rods.    Yards. 

Acres. 

Length  in  rods. 
Rods.    Yards. 

X 

44 

15 

2640 

32 

5632 

X 

88 

16 

2816 

33 

5808 

X 

132 

17 

2992 

34 

5984 

i 

176 

18 

3168 

35 

6160 

2 

352 

19 

3344 

36 

6336 

3 

528 

20 

3520 

37 

6512 

4 

704 

21 

3696 

38 

6678 

5 

880 

22 

3872 

39 

6864 

6 

1056 

23 

4048 

40 

7040 

7 

1232 

24 

4224 

50 

8800 

8 

1408 

25 

4400 

60 

10560 

9 

1584 

26 

4576 

70 

12320 

10 

1760 

27 

4752 

80 

14080 

11 

1936 

28 

4928 

90 

15840 

12 

2112 

29 

5104 

100 

17600 

13 

2288 

30 

5280 

14 

2464 

31 

5456 

320 


LAND   DRAINAGE. 

TABLE  No.  3 — Continued. 


Distance  between  Drains 
18  feet. 

Distance  between  Drains 
21  feet. 

Distance  between  Drains 
itt  feet. 

Acres. 

Length  in  rods. 
Hods.     Yards. 

Acres. 

Length  in  rods. 
Rods.    Yards. 

Acres. 

Length  in  rods. 
Hods.  Yards. 

H 

36     3% 

1A 

31     234 

34 

27     2% 

y* 

73     1% 

1A 

62     4% 

y* 

55 

% 

110 

% 

94     134 

% 

82     2% 

i 

146     3% 

i 

125     4 

i 

110 

2 

293     1% 

2 

251     234 

2 

220 

3 

440 

3 

377       % 

3 

330 

4 

586     3% 

4 

502     4% 

4 

440 

5 

733     1% 

5 

628     3% 

5 

550 

6 

880 

6 

754     IK 

6 

660 

7 

1026     Z% 

7 

880 

7 

770 

8 

1173     1% 

8 

1005     4 

8 

880 

9 

1320 

9 

1131     2X 

9 

990 

10 

1466     3% 

10 

1257       % 

10 

1100 

11 

1613     1% 

11 

1382     4% 

11 

1210 

12 

1760 

12 

1508     3J4 

1     32 

1320 

13 

1906     3% 

13 

1634   iyz 

13 

1430 

14 

2053     1% 

14 

1760 

14 

1540 

15 

2200 

15 

1885     4 

15 

1650 

16 

2346     3% 

16 

2011     234 

16 

1760 

17 

2493     1% 

17 

2137       % 

17 

1870 

18 

2640 

18 

2262     4% 

18 

1980 

19 

2786     3% 

19 

2388     3>£ 

19 

2090 

20 

2933     1% 

20 

2514     1^ 

20 

2200 

21 

3080 

21 

2640 

21 

2310 

22 

3226     3% 

22 

2765     4 

22 

2420 

23 

3373     1% 

23 

2891     2% 

23 

2530 

24 

3520 

24 

3017       % 

24 

2640 

25 

3666     3% 

25 

3142     4% 

25 

2750 

26 

3813     1% 

26 

3268     334 

26 

2860 

27 

3960 

27 

3394     1% 

27 

2970 

28 

4106     3% 

28 

3520 

28 

3080 

29 

4253     1% 

29 

3654     4 

29 

3190 

30 

4400 

30 

3771     234 

30 

3300 

31 

4546     3% 

o  1 

3897       % 

31 

3410 

32 

4693     1% 

32 

4022     4% 

32 

3520 

33 

4840 

33 

4148     3% 

33 

3630 

34 

4986     3% 

34 

4274     \yz 

34 

3740 

^5 

5133     1% 

34 

4400 

35 

3850 

36 

5280 

36 

4525     4 

36 

3960 

37 

5426     3% 

37 

4651     2% 

37 

4070 

38 

5573     1% 

38 

4777       % 

38 

4180 

39 

5720 

39 

4902     4% 

39 

4290 

40 

5866     3% 

40 

5028     334 

40 

4400 

50 

7333     1% 

50 

6285     4 

50 

5500 

60 

8800 

60 

7542     4% 

60 

6600 

70 

10266     3% 

70 

8800 

70 

7700 

80 

11733     1% 

80 

10057       % 

80 

8800 

90 

13200 

90 

11314     IX 

90 

;990() 

100 

14666     3% 

100 

12571     234 

100 

11000 

DISTAN6E   BETWEEN   DRAINS. 

TABLE  No.  3 — Continued. 


321 


Distance  between  Drains 
27  feet. 

Distance  between  Drains 
30  feet. 

Distance  between  Drains 
33  feet. 

Acres. 

Length  in  rods. 
Rods.  Yards. 

Acres. 

Length  in  rods. 
Rods.  Yards. 

Acres. 

Length  in  rods. 
Rods.  Yards. 

X 

24  2^ 

X 

22 

X 

20 

X 

48  5 

X 

44 

X 

40 

% 

73  1% 

X 

66 

H 

60 

1 

97  4M 

1 

88 

i 

80 

2 

195  3 

2 

176 

2 

160 

3 

293  \% 

3 

264 

3 

240 

4 

391   % 

4 

352 

4 

320 

5 

488  5 

5 

440 

5 

400 

6 

586  3% 

6 

528 

6 

480 

7 

684  2K 

7 

616 

7 

560 

8 

782  1% 

8 

704 

8 

640 

9 

880 

9 

792 

9 

720 

10 

977  4J4 

10 

880 

10 

800 

11 

1075  3 

11 

968 

11 

880 

12 

1173  1% 

12 

1056 

12 

960 

13 

1271   Y2 

13 

1144 

13 

1040 

14 

1368  5 

14 

1232 

14 

1120 

15 

1466  3% 

15 

1320 

15 

1200 

16 

1564  2K 

16 

1408 

16 

1280 

17 

1662  1% 

17 

1496 

17 

1360 

18 

1760 

18 

1584 

18 

1440 

19 

1857  4^£ 

19 

1672 

19 

1520 

20 

1955  3 

20 

1760 

20 

1600 

21 

2053  1% 

21 

1848 

21 

1680 

22 

2151   K 

22 

1936 

22 

1760 

23 

2248  5 

23 

2024 

23 

1840 

24 

2346  3% 

24 

2112 

24 

1920 

25 

2444  2^ 

25 

2200 

25 

2000 

26 

2542  1J4 

26 

2288 

26 

2080 

27 

2640 

27 

2376 

27 

2160 

28 

2737  4^ 

28 

2464 

28 

2240 

29 

2835  3 

29 

2552 

29 

2320 

30 

2933  1% 

30 

2640 

30 

2400 

31 

3031   K 

31 

2728 

31 

2480 

32 

3128  5 

32 

2816 

32 

2560 

33 

3226  3% 

33 

2904 

33 

2640 

34 

3324  2K 

34 

2992 

34 

2720 

35 

3422  1M 

35 

3080 

35 

2800 

36 

3520 

36 

3168 

36 

2880 

37 

3617  4J^ 

37 

3256 

37 

2960 

38 

3715  3 

38 

3344 

38 

3040 

39 

3813  IX 

39 

3432 

39 

3120 

40 

3911   X 

40 

3520 

40 

3200 

50 

4888  5 

50 

4400 

50 

4000 

60 

5866  3% 

60 

5280 

60 

4800 

70 

6844  2M 

70 

6160 

70 

5600 

80 

7822  1^ 

80 

7040 

80 

6400 

90 

8800 

90 

7920 

90 

7200 

100 

9777  4^ 

100 

8800 

100 

8000 

322 


LAND    DRAINAGE. 


TABLE  No.  3 — Continued. 


Distance  between  Drains 
36  lent. 

Distance  between  Drains 
39  feet. 

Distance  between  Drains 
42  feet. 

Acres. 

Length  in  rods. 
Hods.     Yards. 

Acres. 

Length  in  rods. 
Rods.    Yards. 

Acres. 

Length  in  rods. 
Hods.  Yards. 

H 

18     1% 

M 

16     5 

% 

15     4 

x 

36     3% 

K 

33     4% 

K 

31     2^ 

% 

55 

% 

50     4K 

% 

47       % 

i 

73     1% 

l 

67     3M 

1 

62     4% 

2 

146     3% 

2 

135     2 

2 

125     4 

3 

220 

3 

203     % 

3 

188     3*4 

4 

293     1% 

4 

270     4*4 

4 

251     2% 

5 

267     3M 

5 

338     2^ 

5 

314     iy2 

6 

440 

6 

406       % 

6 

377       % 

7 

513     1M 

7 

473     4% 

7 

440 

8 

586     3% 

8 

541     3 

8 

502     4% 

9 

660 

9 

609     \y± 

9 

565     4 

10 

733     1% 

10 

676     5 

10 

628     3^ 

11 

806     3% 

11 

744     3^ 

11 

691     2M 

12 

880 

12 

812     1% 

12 

754     1M 

13 

953     1% 

13 

880 

13 

817       % 

14 

104>6     3% 

14 

947     3M 

14 

880 

15 

1100 

15 

1015     2 

15 

942     4% 

16 

1173     1% 

16 

1083     yz 

16 

1005     4 

17 

1246     3% 

17 

1150     4}4 

17 

1068     3J4 

18 

1320 

18 

1218     2>^ 

18 

1131     2K 

19 

1393     1% 

19 

1286       % 

19 

1194     1% 

20 

1466     3% 

20 

1353     4% 

20 

1257       M 

21 

1540 

21 

1421     3 

21 

1320 

22 

1613     1M 

22 

1489     \Y± 

22 

1382     4% 

23 

1686     3% 

23 

1556     5 

23 

1445     4 

24 

1760 

24 

1624     3^ 

24 

1508     3^ 

25 

1833     1% 

25 

1692     1% 

25 

1571     234 

26 

1906    .3% 

26 

,    1760 

26 

1634     \y2 

27 

1980 

27 

1827     3% 

27 

1697       % 

28 

2053     1% 

28 

1895     2 

28 

1760 

29 

2126     3% 

29 

1963       M 

29 

1822     4% 

30 

2200 

30 

2030     4X 

30 

1855     4 

31 

2273     1% 

31 

2098     2% 

31 

1948     3^4 

32 

2346     3% 

22 

2166       % 

32 

2011     2}4 

33 

2420 

33 

2233     4% 

33 

2074     1^ 

34 

2493     1% 

34 

2301     3 

34 

2137       K 

35 

2566     3% 

35 

2369     1}4 

35 

2200 

36 

2640 

36 

2436     5 

36 

2262     4^ 

37 

2713     1% 

37 

2504     3X 

37 

2325     4 

38 

2786     3% 

38 

2572     1% 

38 

2388     3^ 

39 

2860 

39 

2640 

39 

2451     2^ 

40 

2933     1% 

40 

2707     3M 

40 

2514   iy2 

50 

3666     3M 

50 

3384     3>£ 

50 

3142     4% 

60 

4400 

60 

4061     3 

60 

3771  "2K 

70 

5133     1% 

70 

4738     2^ 

70 

4400 

80 

5866     3% 

80 

5415     2 

80 

5028     314 

90 

6600 

90 

6092     1.% 

90 

5657       M 

100 

7333     1% 

100 

6769     \Y± 

100 

6285     4 

DISTANCE   BETWEEN   DRAINS. 


323 


TABLE  No.  3 — Continued, 
Distance  between  Drains  45  feet. 


Acres. 

Length  in  rods. 

Hods.  Yards. 

Acres. 

Length  in  rods. 
Rods.     Yards. 

Acres. 

Length  in  rods. 
Rods.          Yards. 

X 

14     3% 

15 

880 

32 

1877     1M 

K 

29     1% 

16 

938     3% 

33 

1936 

X 

44 

17 

997    \% 

34 

1994    3% 

1 

58     3^ 

18 

1056 

35 

2053     1% 

2 

117     IH 

19 

1114    3% 

36 

2112 

3 

176 

20 

1173     \% 

37 

2170     3% 

4 

234    3% 

21 

1232 

38 

2229     1% 

5 

293     1% 

22 

1290     3^ 

39 

2288 

6 

352 

23 

1349     1% 

40 

2346     3% 

7 

410     3% 

24 

1408 

50 

2933     1% 

8 

469    1% 

25 

1466    3% 

60 

3520 

9 

528 

26 

1525     1M 

70 

4106     3% 

10 

586    3££ 

27 

1584 

80 

4693     1% 

11 

655     1H 

28 

1642    3% 

90 

5280 

12 

704 

29 

1701     1% 

100 

5866     3% 

13 

762    3% 

30 

1760 

14 

821     1% 

31 

1818    3% 

CHAPTER    V. 


MANUFACTURE    OF    TILES 


SELECTION    OF   MATERIAL. 

FOR  drain  tile  it  is  necessary  to  manufacture  an  article 
of  genuine  earthenware,  of  sufficient  strength  to  bear 
transportation  and  easy  management,  as  well  as  to  resist 
the  action  of  water  for  a  considerable  period  of  time. 
These  conditions  may  be  found  in  a  kind  of  earth  less 
porous,  more  impervious,  and  finer  in  grain  than  that  of 
which  we  make  common  brick  ;  it  must  be  similar  in  every 
respect  to  the  earth  of  which  roof  tiles  are  made.  We 
may,  therefore,  adopt  as  a  general  principle  that,  earth  fit 
to  make  tile,  is  equally  suitable  for  drain  pipes,  and  that 
its  preparation  must,  in  both  cases,  be  similar.  Never- 
theless, it  may  be  remarked  that  flat  and  concave  tiles  for 
roofs  are  almost  always  manufactured  by  hand,  while  drain 
pipes  are  made  cheaper  and  faster  by  machines. 

The  mortar  about  to  be  used  ought  to  possess  a  degree 
of  ductility  and  firmness  which  is  not  required  for  roofing 
tiles,  especially  when  they  are  made  flat.  Pipe  tile  ought 
to  be  manufactured  not  far  from  the  place  where  they  are 
to  be  employed,  on  account  of  the  cost  of  transportation, 
so  as  to  render  drainage  easy  and  cheap.  The  materials 
of  the  compound  must  then  be  such  as  to  furnish,  at  any 
time,  at  any  place,  cheap,  substantial  pipes. 

Like  other  kinds  of  earthenware,  this  requires  an  es- 
sential distinction  between  the  materials  to  be  used  for 
the  composition  of  the  mortar,  and  the  elements  that  will 

constitute  the  piece  completed  or  baked. 
(324) 


SELECTION  OP  MATERIALS.  325 

In  the  composition  of  the  mortar,  some  compound  for- 
eign bodies  are  mechanically  but  not  chemically  combined. 
These  compound  bodies  are  materials  for  fabrication,  but 
can  be  separated  by  water.  In  the  baked  or  burnt  mortar 
new  combinations  have  been  formed,  against  which  water 
is  powerless,  so  far,  at  all  events,  as  to  reduce  the  finished 
mass  to  the  primitive  materials.  These  combinations  are 
multiple  silicates,  that  is  to  say,  silicic  acid,  combined 
with  several  bases — generally  aluminum  or  lime — both  in 
large  quantities ;  at  other  times,  and  in  less  proportions, 
magnesia,  oxide  of  iron,  potash,  soda  and  oxide  of  man- 
ganese. Burning,  or  baking,  is  the  only  means  we  have 
to  obtain  those  fixed  combinations  that  are  subject  to  the 
action  of  neither  acid  nor  water,  and  that  are  the  more 
unalterable  in  proportion  as  the  silicates  are  more  exactly 
formed  with  their  constituent  elements,  without  any  for- 
eign admixture. 

The  essential  elements  are  silicic  acid  and  aluminum ; 
from  these  may  be  obtained  an  earthenware  which  is  fire 
proof,  that  is  to  say,  it  will  not  melt  in  the  strongest  fires 
of  either  forge  or  blast  furnace.  Aluminum,  may  some- 
times be  replaced  in  part  by  magnesia.  The  proportions 
of  these  indispensable  elements  are  as  follows : 

Silica,    -    -    -    -    55  to  75  per  cent. 
Aluminum,     -    -    25  to  35     "      " 

"When  magnesia  is  present,  it  is  generally  found  to  the 
amount  of  1  to  5  per  cent.;  there  might  be  found  as 
much  as  25  to  35  per  cent. 

The  accessory  substances  are  still  more  variable  in  their 
proportions  tha.n  the  above ;  they  are 

Lime, 0  to  19  per  cent. 

Potash,    ....      0  to    5     "      " 
Protoxyd  of  Iron,   -    0  to  19     "      " 


326  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

These  accessory  elements  give  fusibility  to  earthenware, 
and,  therefore,  allow  its  constituent  substances  to  combine 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  resisting  body ;  and  this  is 
performed  with  a  temperature  lower  in  proportion  as  the 
accessory  elements  are  more  abundant.  In  some  baked 
mortars,  there  is  carbonic  acid  (0  to  16  per  cent.),  when 
lime  is  present  in  sensible  proportions.  Water  is  almost 
always  totally  driven  out  of  the  mortar  by  the  heat ;  and 
is  present  only  in  the  paste  in  preparation ;  but  here  it 
performs  an  important  office,  by  assisting  to  mix  together 
the  various  materials  which  will  bring  into  the  paste  the 
elements  that  we  have  described ;  it  serves  also  to  give 
them  the  required  softness,  to  endow  them  with  a  certain 
adhesive  force,  and  to  promote  their  plastic  qualities. 

We  term  plasticity  that  quality  which  some  soft  matters 
have  of  assuming,  under  the  hand  of  artists  and  mechanics, 
the  forms  that  they  wish  to  reproduce.  We  term  those 
long  pastes  which  are  possessed  of  this  quality  in  the  high- 
est degree,  and  short  pastes  those  which  have  it  in  a  slight 
degree  only. 

Plasticity  is  not  absolutely  indispensable  for  the  shap- 
ing of  ceramic  pastes  ;  we  can  mold  them,  by  pressing  the 
materials  which  are  in  the  very  state  of  dust;  but  a  plastic 
substance  yields  better  to  the  easiest  and  most  usual  mode 
of  giving  shape,  and  it  is,  therefore,  much  more  desirable. 1 

While  plasticity  is  a  condition  of  the  first  importance, 
in  order  to  facilitate  the  shaping  of  the  mortar  into  the 
desired  forms,  it  offers  great  inconvenience  when  brought 
to  an  excessive  degree.  A  paste  which  is  too  plastic  dries 

1  A  gentleman  exhibited  at  the  Ohio  State  Fair,  at  Dayton,  in  1860,  a  tile 
machine,  which  made  tile  from  hydraulic  cement,  without  the  aid  of  water. 
The  cement,  of  course,  possessed  no  plasticity,  but  the  tile  or  pipes  were 
made  by  enormous  pressure.  If  the  tile  thus  made  were  placed  in  drains  the 
moisture  of  the  ground  would  cause  them  to  harden,  so  as  to  be  serviceable 
for  many  years. 


SELECTION   OF   MATERIALS.  327 

up  with  difficulty,- and  great  unevenness  ;  articles  manu- 
factured from  it  are  very  likely,  in  drying,  to  lose  their 
proper  shape;  they  are  very  apt  to  crack,  both  during 
the  period  of  desiccation,  and  in  the  bake  oven  or  kiln. 
Excessive  plasticity  may  be  modified  by  other  materials, 
which  are  either  natural  or  artificial. 

Sand  is  the  natural  correcting  or  tempering  material. 
All  sands  are  composed  of  silicic  acid,  or  silicum,  and  of 
some  foreign  substances,  from  one*  to  9  per  cent.;  these 
foreign  matters  are  aluminum,  magnesia,  lime,  oxyd  of 
iron,  potash,  etc. 

The  artificial  tempering  materials  are:  1.  Fragments 
of  burnt  brick  or  tile,  reduced  to  powder.  2.  Scoria, 
from  the  forges.  3.  Sometimes  sawdust. 

As  far  as  the  drain  pipe  is  concerned,  it  will  not  be 
necessary  to  discuss  all  the  other  materials  which  are  used 
in  the  various  productions  of  the  ceramic  art. 

Any  kind  of  sand  may  be  employed  for  making  drain- 
age pipes,  provided  it  be  free  from  gravel,  as  it  would  in- 
terfere seriously  with  the  molding. 

As  to  plastic  materials,  although  they  may  all  be  used, 
their  qualities  must  be  discriminated,  in  order  to  know 
how  they  shall  be  mixed  together,  and  what  proportion 
of  tempering  material,  that  is  to  say,  sand,  ought  to  be 
added  to  them.  It  may  happen  that  some  kind  of  earth 
may  be  found  susceptible  of  being  employed  alone,  and 
without  any  mixture.  Let  us  see  then  what  qualities  each 
ought  to  possess : 

1.  The  earth  having  received  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
water,  must  be  malleable  enough  to  assume  all  forms  that 
may  be  wished ;  it  must  be  firm  enough  to  preserve  those 
forms ;  it  must  be  composed  of  particles  sufficiently  ad- 
herent, so  that,  when  passing  through  the  dye  plate,  this 
adherence  is  not  impaired. 


328  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

2.  The  earth  ought  not  to  contain  any  particle  of  pure 
chalk,  even  so  small  as  the  fiftieth  part  of  an  incli ;  bak- 
ing it  would  produce  lime;    and   lime,  in  contact  with 
water,  would  slack  and  burst  the  pipe.     There  ought  not 
to  be  any  particle  of  either  sulphuret  of  iron  or  of  py- 
rites, as  these  would  produce  the  same  result. 

3.  It  must  dry  readily,  and  with  evenness. 

4.  The  process  of  drying  must  be  carried  on,  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  evaporate  the  water  which  gave  adherence 
to  the  particles,  without  producing  cracks  or  deformities 
in  the  pipes. 

We  will  now  examine  the  various  kinds  of  plastic  mate- 
rials which  may  be  used  in  the  fabrication  of  drainage 
pipes. 

Natural  plastic  materials  comprise  clay,  and  clayey 
marl. 

Clay  is,  in  the  potter's  sense,  an  earth  which  forms  a 
paste  with  water,  working  easily  and  hardening  by  fire. 

Clay  is  plastic  when  it  contains  nothing  but  silicum  and 
aluminum.  This  variety  of  clay  which  often  bears  the 
name  of  potter's  clay,  on  account  of  its  tenacity,  does  not 
readily  admit  water  to  penetrate,  but  when  saturated  it  is 
very  retentive  of  moisture. 

Clay  is  fuliginous  when  it  contains  some  lime,  in  the 
maximum  proportion  of  5  to  6  per  cent.,  part  of  it  as  car- 
bonate, and  part  may  be  in  the  state  of  silicate.  This 
clay  is  still  coherent,  but  less  tenacious  than  the  plastic 
above  mentioned.  It  produces  a  slight  effervescence  with 
the  acids,  but  this  effervescence,  caused  by  an  emission  of 
carbonic  acid  gas,  soon  ceases. 

These  two  kinds  of  clay  may  be  combined  with  an  oxide 
of  iron,  and  sometimes  with  particles  of  gypsum  (sulphate 
of  lime),  or  plaster. 

Plastic  clay,  when  not  combined  by  these  bodies,  is  al- 


SELECTION  OF  MATERIALS.  329 

together  fire  proof,  that  is,  it  will  not  melt  at  any  tem- 
perature of  our  furnaces ;  should  these  refractory  quali- 
ties be  wanted  for  any  purpose,  that  clay  must  be  tem- 
pered by  using  sand  formed  of  pure  silicum  or  flint. 

In  regard  to  drain  pipes,  both  kinds  of  clay  must  be 
tempered,  but  with  common  materials  as  above  described. 

In  the  special  point  of  view,  for  which  alone  we  are 
writing,  we  will  say  that,  both  plastic  and  fuliginous  clay 
should  be  used  only  to  give  plasticity  to  other  materials. 

No  person  can  learn  any  trade,  be  it  ever  so  simple, 
by  reading  alone.  No  matter  how  carefully  the  books 
which  treat  of  such  trade  may  be  written,  practice  is  nec- 
essary to  perfect  the  workman  in  it.  Books  are  a  great 
auxiliary  to  effect  a  perfection  of  knowledge,  and  to  those 
who  have  already  made  some  progress  in  a  practical  ac- 
quaintance with  any  handiwork,  reading  greatly  enhances 
their  ability  to  pursue  their  occupation  profitably.  Those 
who  have  been  engaged  in  the  fabrication  of  pottery, 
tiles,  or  brick,  may,  by  means  of  the  theoretical  informa- 
tion to  be  derived  from  books,  cursorily  learn  sufficient  of 
the  operations  of  making  drain  tiles,  as  to  succeed  in  their 
fabrication  very  well. 

Clay  suitable  for  drain  tile  is  such  as  is  proper  for  the 
fabrication  of  roofing  tile,  or  even  fine  brick.  It  should 
not  be  too  poor,  or  meager  of  clay  constituents,  and 
should  be  free  from  pebbles  and  pieces  of  limestone,  al- 
though it  is  an  error  to  suppose  that  it  should  be  entirely 
void  of  lime,  as  this,  in  small  quantity,  and  very  evenly 
commingled,  assists  very  much  in  melting  the  mass  when 
subjected  to  heat.  If  the  amount  of  sand  contained  in 
the  clay  intended  for  drain  pipe  be  too  small,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  other  constituents,  they  are  .too  easily  curved 
in  handling  before  dry,  and  are  very  liable  to  crack,  both 
while  drying  and  subjected  to  heat ;  and,  therefore,  when 
29 


330  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

a  bed  of  clay  is  worked  for  this  manufacture,  too  pure 
for  the  purpose,  a  proper  proportion  of  sand  must  be 
added,  to  give  the  due  consistence  to  the  tiles  when 
molded.  Too  great  care  in  preparing  the  materials,  can 
not  be  taken,  and  the  results  of  proper  precautions  in 
this  particular,  will  be  a  diminution  of  the  average  cost 
of  the  product. 

Clays  of  Ohio. — Fortunately  for  the  farmers  of  Ohio, 
clay  suitable  for  tile  making  may  be  found  in  nearly  every 
part  of  the  state ;  in  fact,  almost  any  clay  that  will  make 
good  bricks,  may,  with  care,  be  made  into  tiles.  The 
principal  requisite  is,  that  the  tile  maker  thoroughly  un- 
derstand the  character  of  the  material  he  uses. 

The  blue  clay  which  lies  directly  upon  the  shale,  or 
limestome,  in  most  of  the  northern  and  north-western 
counties  of  Ohio,  has  been  found  to  be  well  adapted  to 
the  manufacture  of  tiles.  This  clay  contains  a  large 
amount  of  carbonate  of  lime,  in  a  state  of  minute  division ; 
it  also  contains  water-worn  fragments  of  limestome,  shale 
and  primitive  rocks.  It  varies  considerably  in  the  degree 
of  plasticity,  and  in  the  amount  of  stones  in  different  lo- 
calities. In  one  tile  yard,  near  Cleveland,  it  is  taken  di- 
rectly from  the  bed  to  the  tile  machine,  without  the  need 
of  any  tempering  whatever.  In  general,  however,  it  re- 
quires much  working,  and  the  employment  of  the  screen 
or  rollers. 

Above  the  blue  elay,  there  is,  in  the  same  localities,  a 
layer  of  yellow  clay.  It  contains  nearly  the  same  rocky 
fragments ;  it  has  but  little  lime  diffused  through  it,  but 
contains  much  more  oxide  of  iron.  This  clay  is  exten- 
sively used  for  brick  making,  and  is  found  to  make  excel- 
lent tiles.  The  use  of  the  screw  or  roller  mill,  is  gene- 
rally needed  where  the  yellow  clay  is  used.  The  pottery 
clays,  peculiar  to  the  ceal  regions,  will,  of  course,  make 


SELECTION   OF  MATERIALS.  331 

excellent  tiles.  It  has,  however,  been  supposed  by 
some,  that  tiles  should  be  porous,  so  as  to  permit  the 
water  to  filter  through  their  sides,  and,  therefore,  that 
clay  suitable  for  stoneware  or  earthenware,  would  not  be 
proper  for  tiles.  This  opinion  is  founded  on  an  error, 
for  the  water  in  drains  does  not  filter  through  the  tiles, 
but  enters  at  the  joints,  and  there  is  not  the  least  objec- 
tion to  having  tiles  made  of  the  hardest  and  most  com- 
pact material.  Indeed,  the  manufacturing  of  tiles  from 
the  better  clays  has  this  advantage,  that  they  may  be 
made  much  lighter,  and  therefore  cost  less  for  carriage. 

The  marly  clays  of  south-western  Ohio,  are  well 
adapted  to  tile  making.  The  lime  acts  as  a  bind  or  flux, 
to  effect  the  semi-fusion  of  the  other  constituents,  and 
extremely  hard  and  durable  tiles  are  made  of  such  mate- 
rial, the  main  point  being  to  secure  a  thorough  burning. 

In  almost  every  township  of  the  state  are  small  swamps, 
or  basins,  with  clayey  bottoms.  The  clay  of  these 
swamps,  although  identical  in  composition  with  that  of 
the  surrounding  uplands,  has  a  far  greater  value  for  tile 
making.  From  being  kept  constantly  wet,  it  possesses  a 
degree  of  solidity,  uniformity  of  texture  and  plasticity, 
that  can  only  be  given  to  the  clay  of  hillsides,  after  much 
working.  In  many  places,  these  swamp  clays  require  no 
labor  to  bring  them  to  a  proper  condition  for  use. 

The  following  letter  from  a  very  successful  tile  maker 
in  Ohio,  with  respect  to  materials  for  tiles,  may  be  of  in- 
terest to  those  who  intend  manufacturing  their  own  tiles : 
"WOODSTOCK,  Champaign  county,  O. 

DEAR  SIR — As  I  promised  you  when  at  Columbus  I  would  send 
you  a  description  of  the  different  kinds  of  clay  suitable  for  making 
drain  tile,  and  where  it  is  likely  to  be  found,  I  now  undertake  to 
communicate  to  you  what  I  know  about  it 

Clay,  suitable  for  making  tile  for  underground  draining,  may  be 
generally  found  through  that  portion  of  Ohio  that  I  am  acquainted 


382  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

with,  in  the  following  described  localities,  viz :  in  small  pond  holes 
(such  as  contain  water  the  greater  part  of  the  year),  by  some  called 
cat  swamps,  usually  found  on  white  oak  ridges.  The  clay  found  in 
these  holes  is  rather  on  the  blue  order,  from  a  bluish  black  to  a 
blue  gray  color.  This  clay  is  of  a  depth  of  from  two  to  ten  feet. 
There  is  also  a  clay  found  on  almost  all  white  oak  land  that  will 
answer  to  make  tile  of,  but  it  is  not  of  the  best  quality,  and  some- 
what difficult  to  get  it  free  from  limestone  gravel;  this  clay  is  of  a 
reddish  cast,  and  runs  from  one  and  a  half  to  three  feet  in  depth. 
There  is  also  a  clay  found  on  low,  wet  prairies,  where  wild  grass 
grows.  The  real  blue  clay  in  some  places  you  will  find  near  the 
surface,  but  frequently  you  will  have  to  dig  from  two  to  four  feet 
before  coming  to  it ;  it  runs  to  a  great  depth  in  the  ground.  It  re- 
quires Stronger  clay  to  make  good  tile  than  it  does  to  make  brick. 
In  making  brick,  if  your  clay  is  too  strong,  you  have  to  add  s$ind 
with  the  clay;  but  not  so  in  making  tile:  the  stronger  the  clay,  the 
better  the  tile.  My  impression  is,  there  is  hardly  a  township  in  the 
state  but  that  has  clay  in  it  suitable  for  making  tile. 

Respectfully  yours,        D.  KENFIELD." 

One  important  step  in  the  preparation  of  the  materi- 
als is  : 

Throwing  up  the  clay  before  the  commencement  of  win- 
ter, as  one  of  the  principal  means  of  success  in  fabricating 
good  tile.  Every  farmer  knows  that  afield  plowed  in  the 
fall  into  rough  furrows,  and  left  fallow,  becomes  much 
more  mellow  than  it  would  be  if  left  undisturbed  by  the 
plow  until  spring.  This  effect  is  likewise  produced  in 
clay  dug  up  and  exposed  to  the  frost  during  winter,  and  is 
produced  by  the  expansion  of  the  water  during  the  pro- 
cess of  freezing,  which  separates  the  particles  of  clay  from 
each  other,  and  thus,  by  lessening  to  some  degree  its  ad- 
hesiveness, fits  it  for  more  easy  manipulation  in  the  process 
of  fabrication.  In  order  to  secure  this  object  most  thor- 
oughly, the  clay  should  be  placed  in  heaps  and  frequently 
turned  over,  so  as  to  expose  all  parts  to  the  action  of  the 
frost,  which  does  not  readily  act  upon  very  stiff  clay.  A 
great  saving  of  labor  and  also  of  time  is  thus,  secured,  in- 


SELECTION   OF  MATERIALS.  333 

asmucli  as  what  is  done  in  winter  leaves  so  much  the  less 
to  do  after  making  begins.  Where  the  clay  requires  grind- 
ing, this  process  may  very  well  go  on  in  connection  with 
the  digging ;  for,  although  the  clay  does  not  grind  so  easily 
when  first  dug,  there  is  a  very  great  advantage  in  giving 
it  time  to  become  settled  together  and  thoroughly  united 
before  it  is  used.  If  the  grinding  is  done  at  the  time  of 
the  manufacture,  it  is  necessary  to  pug  the  clay  or  tread 
it,  because  it  comes  from  the  rollers  in  too  loose  a  state  for 
the  tile  machine.  A  few  months  of  exposure,  after  grinding, 
is  worth  as  much  as  pugging,  and  will  render  that  opera- 
tion unnecessary.  When  the  iron  rollers  are  not  required, 
a  pug  mill,  similar  to  those  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
bricks,  will  effect  all  the  tempering  that  is  needed. 

The  purification  of  the  day  intended  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  drain  tile  is  necessary,  when  the  material  contains 
pebbles  or  pieces  of  limestone,  or  is  too  meager  of  clayey 
elements,  and  can  only  be  effected  by  mixing  it  thoroughly 
with  water,  so  as  to  dissolve  it,  as  it  were,  and  then  permit 
the  heavier  matters,  as  pebbles,  limestones  and  coarse 
sand,  to  be  deposited  upon  the  bottom  of  the  vat  or  pit  in 
which  the  operation  is  performed,  draining  off  the  super- 
fluous water  and  leaving  the  clay  remain  until  evaporation 
shall  have  restored  it  to  a  proper  degree  of  consistence. 

To  effect  this  object  the  clay  is  placed  in  a  properly 
constructed  vat  or  pit,  of  suitable  size,  provided  with  a 
sliding  gate,  by  means  of  which  to  drain  off  the  water 
which  remains  after  settling.  The  clay  is  then  mixed  with 
water  and  stirred  until  the  whole  mass  becomes  fluid ;  it 
is  then  permitted  to  settle,  when  all  the  supernatant  water 
can  be  drained  off  by  the  sliding  gate ;  or,  after  being 
reduced  to  a  lime  condition,  the  clay  may  be  passed 
through  a  wire  sieve,  of  suitable  strength  and  fineness, 
which  will  readily  separate  the  coarse  materials  from  it. 


334  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

This  mode  is  more  particularly  applicable  when  the  clay 
is  of  the  desired  composition,  except  the  existence  in  it 
of  pebbles  and  insoluble  lumps. 

A  very  convenient  form  of  a  mixing  pit  is  furnished  by 
the  common  mortar  box  and  bed  of  plasterers ;  the  mortar 
box  may  be  used  to  mix  the  clay  with  water,  and  the  bed 
will  answer  for  a  fit  receptacle  in  which  a  complete  sep- 
aration of  the  light  and  heavy  materials  can  occur.  As 
soon  as  this  has  taken  place,  the  superabundant  water  can 
be  removed  by  means  of  a  draining  gate,  and  the  mass 
left  to  dry  out  sufficiently  for  working.  The  mixing  can 
be  effected,  where  but  small  quantities  of  clay  are  used, 
by  means  of  hoes,  such  as  are  used  by  plasterers ;  but, 
when  the  manufacture  is  carried  on  upon  a  large  scale,  a 
suitable  method  is  to  make  use  of  a  mixing  machine,  the 
form  and  capacity  of  which  may  best  be  determined  by 
the  quantity  of  labor  intended  to  be  performed  by  it. 
The  common  pug  mill  used  in  brick  yards  maybe  so  modi- 
fied as  to  answer  the  purpose  very  well ;  taking  care  to 
adjust  it  so  that  the  clay  may  .be  mixed  with  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  water  before  it  is  permitted  to  flow  off  by  the 
outlet  gate. 

Another  convenient  mixing  machine  may  be  constructed 
in  the  following  manner  :  Take  a  large  hollow  log,  of  suit- 
able length,  say  five  or  six  feet ;  hew  out  the  inequalities 
with  an  adze,  and  close  up  the  ends  with  pieces  of  strong 
plank,  into  which  bearings  have  been  cut  to  support  a  re- 
volving shaft.  This  shaft  should  be  sufficiently  thick  to 
permit  being  transfixed  with  wooden  pins  long  enough  to 
reach  within  an  inch  or  two  of  the  sides  of  the  log  or 
trough,  and  they  should  be  so  beveled  as  to  form  in  their 
aggregate  shape  an  interrupted  screw,  having  a  direction 
toward  that  end  of  the  box  where  the  mixed  clay  is  de- 
signed to  pass  out.  In  order  to  effect  the  mixing  more 


SELECTION  OP  MATERIALS.  o35 

thoroughly,  these  pins  may  be  placed  sufficiently  far  apart 
to  permit  the  interior  of  the  box  to  be  armed  with  otner 
pins  extending  toward  the  center,  between  which  they  can 
easily  move.  The  whole  is  placed  either  horizontally  or 
vertically,  and  supplied  with  clay  and  water  in  proper 
quantities,  while  the  shaft  is  made  to  revolve  by  means  of 
a  sweep,  with  horse  power,  running  water  or  steam,  as  the 
oase  may  be.  The  clay  is  put  into  the  end  farthest  from 
the  outlet  (if  horizontal),  and  is  carried  forward  to  it  and 
mixed  by  the  motion,  and  mutual  action  and  reaction  of 
the  pins  in  the  shaft  and  sides  of  the  box.  Iron  pins  may, 
of  course,  be  substituted  for  the  wooden  ones,  and  have 
the  advantage  of  greater  durability  and  of  greater  strength 
in  proportion  to  their  size,  and  the  number  may  therefore 
be  greater  in  a  machine  of  any  given  length.  The  fluid 
mass  of  clay  and  water  may  be  permitted  to  fall  upon  a 
sieve  or  riddle,  of  heavy  wire,  and  afterward  be  received 
in  a  settling  vat,  of  suitable  size  and  construction  to  drain 
off  the  water  and  let  the  clay  dry  out  sufficiently  by  sub- 
sequent evaporation.  A  machine  of  this  construction 
may  be  made  of  such  a  size  that  it  may  be  put  in  motion 
by  hand,  by  means  of  a  crank,  and  yet  capable  of  mixing, 
if  properly  supplied,  clay  enough  to  mold  800  or  1000 
pieces  of  drain  pipe  per  day. 

In  Ohio,  where  clay  of  suitable  character  is  accessible 
in  so  very  many  localities,  this  process  of  mixing  and  pre- 
paring by  filtration  and  settling,  need  be  instituted  only  in 
very  few  instances ;  and  the  question  of  comparative  cost, 
between  tiles  purchased  and  transported  from  manufacto- 
ries situated  where  natural  facilities  are  greater,  and  the 
home  manufacture  of  such  tiles,  under  the  disadvantages 
accruing  from  less  suitable  clay  beds,  must  be  determined 
by  every  one  for  himself.  "Where  the  home  manufacture 
of  drain  pipe  is  found  preferable,  the  preceding  hints  will 


836  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

be  found  of  invaluable  assistance  in  obviating  difficulties 
otherwise  almost  insurmountable. 

There  are  other  methods  by  which  this  evil  may  be 
remedied ;  the  simplest  is  by  the  use  of  a  screen  in  the 
tile  machine ;  the  other  method  is  to  crush  the  clay  be- 
tween heavy  iron  rollers.  The  choice  between  these 
methods  depends  on  the  number  and  character  of  the 
stones  to  be  disposed  of.  Where  they  are  few  in  number, 
or  anything  else  than  small  limestones,  the  screen  will  be 
sufficient.  If,  however,  the  stones  are  numerous,  and 
among  them  are  many  fragments  of  limestone,  of  the  size 
of  peas,  or  smaller,  the  rollers  will  be  better  than  the 
screen ;  for  though  such  small  limestones  would  not  inter- 
fere with  the  molding,  they  will  occasion  the  loss  of  tiles 
in  burning.  The  presence  of  stones  requiring  the  rollers, 
is  no  serious  objection  to  the  use  of  a  clay,  otherwise  suit- 
able. Grinding  the  clay  will  add  to  the  cost  of  manufac- 
turing about  fifty  cents  a  thousand.  The  purchaser  can 
much  better  afford  to  pay  this  extra  price,  than  to  add 
two  or  three  miles  of  carriage  from  some  more  distant 
locality.  Five  hundred  two  inch  tiles  will  fill  the  box  of 
a  lumber  wagon ;  the  labor  of  extra  carriage  may  there- 
fore easily  exceed  the  additional  cost  of  manufacture. 

When  the  clay  is  not  free  from  the  admixture  with  stones 
or  pebbles,  or  when  it  contains  too  little  sand,  some  manu- 
facturers use  a  clay  cutter ;  but  such  a  machine  can  not 
supersede  the  mixing  apparatus  mentioned.  A  very  use- 
ful machine  for  working  clay,  and  one  that  will  obviate 
much  hand  labor,  may  be  constructed  of  two  or  more  cast 
iron  rollers,  referred  to  above,  and  which  we  will  soon 
explain  more  fully,  so  arranged  as  to  rotate  closely  to- 
gether. Between  such  rollers  the  clay  may  be  passed, 
and  by  this  means  made  to  assume  a  proper  consistence 
and  plasticity  for  molding. 


SELECTION   OP   MATERIALS.  337 

Moistening  the  clay  to  a  proper  degree  is  always  neces- 
sary, whether  it  may  have  been  necessary  to  purify  it  by 
washing  and  settling  or  not.  For  this  purpose,  pits  are 
dug  in  the  earth,  and  walled  up  or  lined,  so  as  to  have 
five  or  six  feet  of  length  and  breadth,  and  four  feet  in 
depth,  clear.  The  clay  is  removed  into  these  pits  from 
its  winter  beds,  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  water  by  means 
of  any  suitable  instrument,  as  shovels,  so  as  to  be  uni- 
formly moist  throughout.  The  degree  of  moisture  should 
be  about  equal  to  that  of  potters'  luting  clay,  and  is  neces- 
sary as  a  preliminary  step  to  its  further  working  upon 
the  kneading  board. 

The  process  of  preparation,  carried  still  further  upon 
the  kneading  board,  in  some  foreign  manufactories  of 
excellent  drain  tile,  is,  in  short,  as  follows : 

The  clay  is  taken  from  the  moistening  pit,  or  settling 
bed,  as  the  case  may  be,  after  being  reduced  to  the  proper 
condition,  and  spread  in  thin  layers  upon  the  kneading 
board.  If  too  rich,  the  proper  proportion  of  sand  is 
added,  and  the  whole  mass  is  thoroughly  trodden  by  men. 
It  is  then  piled  up  in  a  low  heap,  and  well  worked  by 
means  of  a  stirrer,  shaped  something  like  a  saber,  fixed  in 
a  handle  three  feet  long,  moistened,  if  necessary,  and 
again  thoroughly  trodden  and  kneaded  by  the  feet.  By 
these  means,  any  pebbles  existing  in  it  may  be  discovered 
and  removed. 

After  being  thus  worked,  it  is  piled  up  in  the  form  of  a 
large  sugar-loaf,  four  or  five  feet  high,  and  of  about  two 
feet  base.  The  pile  is  begun  by  placing  a  layer  of  about 
six  inches  hight,  and  then  beating  this  down  with  a  large 
wooden  maul,  as  firmly  as  possible.  Upon  this  a  second 
layer  is  superimposed,  and  beaten  down  in  like  manner, 
until  the  cone  is  sufficiently  high.  A  workman  then,  with 
a  scraper,  having  a  handle  at  each  end,  proceeds  to  shave 


338  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

down  the  whole  cone  into  thin  shavings.     By  this  means 
the  smallest  pebble  is  discovered  and  readily  removed. 

The  clay  shavings  are  then  cast  upon  another  plank 
table,  where  it  is  beaten  into  masses  of  suitable  size  and 
form,  to  fit  the  box  of  the  molding  press.  This  last  ham- 
mering must  be  performed  very  carefully,  to  drive  out  any 
air  which  may  yet  be  confined  in  the  clay,  or  intervene 
between  the  clay  blocks  and  the  ridges  of  the  molding 
machine,  as  the  existence  of  air  in  the  press  would  mate- 
rially interfere  with  the  perfection  of  the  tile. 

This  method  of  preparation  has  several  advantages  over 
those  in  which  machinery  is  employed,  upon  the  durabil- 
ity of  which  the  profits  largely  depend.  A  clay  cutting 
machine  is  expensive,  and  yet  the  clay  can  not  be  best 
prepared,  by  its  use,  for  the  molding  press.  Some  per- 
sons make  use  of  sieves,  or  perforated  plates,  particularly 
when  the  clay  has  been  prepared  by  machinery,  through 
which  the  materials  are  forced  to  strain  the  pebbles  re- 
maining ;  but  they  are  continually  liable  to  become  clog- 
ged, and  hinder  the  progress  of  the  work  by  the  loss  of 
time  necessary  to  keep  them  clean,  and  demand  a  great 
deal  of  power  to  drive  the  clay  through  their  small  inter- 
stices. These  difficulties  are  obviated  by  working  the 
clay  by  hand,  and  a  sufficient  force  can  be  set  to  work 
to  produce  the  desired  amount  of  prepared  material  with 
certainty ;  which  can  not  be  always  accomplished  by  the 
best  of  machines,  on  account  of  the  accidents  to  which 
they  are  liable. 

If  the  prepared  clay  can  not,  when  made  into  masses 
for  the  press,  be  worked  up  fast  enough,  the  blocks  may 
be  kept  moist  by  covering  them  with  wet  cloths,  until  such 
time  as  they  may  be  needed  for  use. 

It  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  clay 
to  be  worked  should  be  properly  tempered,  and  kept  so, 


SELECTION   OF   MATERIALS.  339 

from  the  beginning  of  the  process ;  and  to  this  point  par- 
ticularly, the  attention  must  be  constantly  directed,  but 
especially  when  it  is  put  into  the  press.  If  it  be  worked 
too  moist,  the  sides  of  the  pipes  fall  together,  or  collapse, 
as  they  come  from  the  mold,  or  they  shrink  greatly  and 
become  curved  and  wry.  If  the  clay  is  too  stiff,  the  work 
is  difficult,  and  the  pipes  are  rough,  cracked,  and  shelly, 
when  burnt,  and  often  fall  to  pieces.  Beside,  it  must  be 
observed,  that  the  same  degree  of  moisture  is  not  suitable 
for  the  fabrication  of  pipe  tile  of  different  diameters. 
Large  pipes  are  made  of  stiffer  clay  than  small  ones.  If 
clay  of  the  proper  temper  for  making  inch  pipe  were 
pressed  through  a  four  inch  mold,  not  a  single  piece 
would  be  found  perfect — every  one  would  be  flattened 
and  distorted.  Experience  is  the  only  guide,  and  by  this 
alone  can  a  proper  acquaintance  with  the  matter  be  ob- 
tained. 

Whatever  method  may  be  adopted  for  removing  small 
stones  from  the  clay,  it  is  very  necessary  that  this  clay 
should  be  pugged,  except,  indeed,  in  such  very  rare  cases  as 
the  clay  formation  at  Cleveland. 

1.  The  Pug  Mill  of  tile  yards  differs  little  from  that 
commonly  used  in  the  manufacture  of  bricks ;  the  only 
material  difference  being  in  the  arms  or  pins  by  which  the 
clay  is  tempered.  The  clay  being  used  in  a  much  stiffer 
state  for  tiles  than  bricks,  iron  knives  are  needed  for  cut- 
ting the  clay,  in  the  place  of  wooden  pins.  These  knives 
are  made  strong  and  sharp,  and  when  set  in  the  upright 
shaft,  the  advancing  edge  is  raised  a  little,  so  that  the  ef- 
fect of  their  movement  is  to  press  the  clay  downward  to- 
ward the  opening.  Instead  of  several  iron  knives,  some 
use  a  smaller  number  of  heavier  ones,  and  these  have 
riveted  into  them,  at  right  angles,  a  number  of  short 
knives,  which  are  so  arranged  as  to  pass  each  other  some- 


340 


LAND   DRAINAGE. 


u 


what  closely,  and  serve  to  cut  the  lumps  of  clay  to  pieces 
thoroughly. 

The  subjoined  cut  represents 
the  section  of  an  excellent  pug- 
ging mill.  It  consists  of  a  cyl- 
indrical body,  well  bounded  by 
stout  hoops — the  upper  portion 
expands  outward  from  the  body, 
so  as  to  form  a  hopper  or  funnel, 
into  which  the  clay  is  thrown. 
A  stout  iron  bar,  a,  a,  is  placed 
in  the  center  of  the  body,  so  as 
to  revolve.  This  center  bar  is 
furnished  with  stout  iron  arma- 
tures, 6,  placed  on  alternate 
sides  of  the  bar;  the  armatures 
furnished  with  three  teeth,  c9  one 
of  which  is  placed  on  the  upper 
side  of  the  armature,  and  just 
midway  between  the  two  which 
are  placed  on  the  lower  side. 
Wherever  this  mill  has  been 
A  PUQGING  usedj  it  nas  given  the  most  am- 
ple satisfaction. 
2.  The  Roller  Mill,  which  is  found  necessary  in  some 
localities,  consists  of  two  iron  rollers,  each  about  fifteen 
inches  in  diameter.  Some  prefer  to  have  one  roller 
smaller  than  the  other,  so  that  if  they  revolve  in  equal 
times,  the  surface  of  one  will  move  faster  than  that  of 
the  other,  and  combine  a  rubbing  with  the  crushing  move- 
ment. This,  however,  is  probably  of  no  real  benefit,  and 
is  attended  with  the  disadvantage  of  not  feeding  as  well 
as  a  mill  where  the  rollers  are  both  large.  The  rollers 
are  about  30  inches  in  length ;  they  are  thick,  but  not 


FIG.    43. — SKCTJOM    OF 
MILL. 


SELECTION  OP  MATERIALS.  341 

solid,  and  should  weigh  about  400  pounds  each.  They 
are  cast  in  an  iron  mold  or  chill.  This  secures  a  perfectly 
hard  and  smooth  surface,  and  much  more  durability  than 
when  they  are  cast  in  the  common  sand  molds.  The 
shafts  of  the  rollers  work  in  boxes  lined  with  babbit 
metal,  which,  by  means  of  set  screws,  are  made  to  slide 
upon  the  iron  frame,  and  give  the  rollers  any  degree  of 
closeness  that  may  be  desired.  From  one  eighth  to  one 
sixth  of  an  inch  is  a  distance  that  will  permit  no  stones 
to  pass,  large  enough  to  do  mischief,  either  in  molding  or 
burning.  The  gearing  of  the  mill  should  be  so  adjusted 
to  the  power,  as  to  give  only  about  ten  to  fifteen  revolu- 
tions of  the  rollers  in  a  minute.  A  rapid  movement  not 
only  requires  a  greater  force,  but  greatly  increases  the 
danger  of  breakage  of  the  machinery.  A  plank  hopper 
is  set  over  the  rollers,  large  enough  to  hold  a  wheelbar- 
rowful  of  clay.  To  the  underside  of  the  iron  frame,  on 
which  the  rollers  rest,  it  is  necessary  to  attach  scrapers 
of  iron  or  steel  plate,  to  scrape  the  clay  from  the  rollers, 
otherwise  they  will  clog  and  become  immovable.  In  set- 
ting the  mill,  it  should,  if  possible,  be  elevated  four  or 
five  feet  above  the  level  of  the  yard,  and  placed  on  hori- 
zontal timbers  of  some  length,  rather  than  upon  posts 
set  immediately  under.  The  object  of  this  is  to  secure 
space  for  the  ground  clay  under  the  mill.  The  whole  ex- 
pense of  such  a  clay  mill,  at  the  Cuyahoga  Steam  Fur- 
nace, in  Cleveland,  will  be  about  one  hundred  dollars. 

3.  The  Horse  Power  to  drive  the  mill,  whether  the 
endless  chain  or  lever  power  be  used,  should  be  arranged 
for  two  horses.  A  single  horse,  unless  very  strong,  or 
the  mill  be  geared  for  a  slow  movement,  will,  if  there  be 
many  stones,  or  the  clay  be  very  lumpy,  find  the  work 
rather  severe.  It  is  better,  therefore,  in  the  first  instance, 
to  obtain  a  power  on  which  two  horses  may  be  used,  if 


342  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

necessary,  or  a  single  horse,  if  one  is  found  to  be  suffi- 
cient. If  the  clay  be  dug  up  in  the  fall  or  winter,  and 
thoroughly  frozen,  or  if  it  be  turned  over  and  well  wetted 
a  few  days  before  grinding,  the  work  will  be  much  easier ; 
if  taken  fresh  from  a  bank  or  hillside,  and  ground  imme- 
diately, a  good  deal  of  additional  power  will  be  required. 

Tile  Machines. — It  would  be  a  useless  task  to  describe 
all  the  different  forms  of  tile  presses  in  use.  All  possi- 
ble forms  of  construction  have  been  used,  but  those 
known  as  Clayton's  or  Whitehead's,  are  among  the  prefer- 
able kinds.  These  machines  are  strong,  simple,  and  re- 
quire comparatively  little  power  to  drive  them,  and  are 
not  apt  to  get  out  of  repair. 

A  passing  description  of  both  these  machines,  may  be 
introduced  with  propriety. 

The  clay  box  of  the  Clayton  press  consists  of  a  per- 
pendicular cylinder,  terminating  below  in  the  mold  box. 
The  cover  of  the  clay  box  is  a  kind  of  piston  head,  which 
is  made  to  drive  the  clay  downward,  while  working,  by 
means  of  a  cogged  piston  rod,  in  the  cogs  of  which  mash 
the  cogs  of  a  small  wheel,  which  is  driven  by  a  larger 
cog-wheel,  and  this  in  turn  by  a  smaller  cog-wheel  at- 
tached to  the  handle  or  working  lever  of  the  machine. 
The  pipes  are  pressed  out  at  the  bottom,  and  hanging  free, 
are  received  upon  the  prongs  of  a  fork,  which  correspond 
in  number  to  the  number  of  pipes  pressed  out  at  one  time. 
The  tiles  are  cut  off  by  a  wire,  which  is  attached  to  the 
machine.  Two  cylinders  properly  belong  to  this  kind  of 
machine,  one  of  which  is  removed  when  emptied,  and 
replaced  by  the  other  full.  Latterly,  this  machine  has  been 
so  modified,  that  the  pipes  are  forced  out  horizontally, 
and  received  upon  a  truckle-bed,  and  are  not  cut  off  until 
this  is  full,  when  they  are  separated  and  borne  away  upon 
forks. 


TILE  MACHINES.  343 

Whitehead's  machine  has  a  flat-lying  quadrangular  box, 
closed  by  a  cover.  In  front  is  the  mold,  and  by  means 
of  a  cogged  piston  rod,  the  plunger,  consisting  of  the 
entire  posterior  end  of  the  box,  is  driven  forward,  which 
presses  the  clay  through  the  mold.  When  empty,  the  ac- 
tion is  reversed,  the  plunger  again  becomes  the  back  wall 
of  the  box,  the  cover  is  raised,  more  clay  is  filled  in,  and 
the  work  proceeds  again.  The.  cogged  piston  or  plunger 
rod  is  worked  horizontally,  by  means  of  three  cog-wheels 
meeting  with  each  other,  as  do  those  of  the  Clayton  ma- 
chine. The  pipes  are  received  upon  a  truckle-bed  as 
they  are  expelled. 

Neither  of  these  machines  is  without  its  advantages  and 
defects,  and  yet  six  or  eight  thousand  tiles  can  be  molded 
daily,  by  some  of  the  latter  machines,  while  the  former 
may  be  made  to  produce  more,  and  is  therefore  better 
calculated,  perhaps,  for  use  in  large  manufactories.  Proper 
machines  can  be  manufactured  after  models,  in  almost  any 
machine  shop,  but  purchasers  should  always  take  care  to 
secure  good  and  warranted  machines. 

Mons.  Barrall,  in  his  excellent  treatise  on  drainage, 
gives  a  detailed  description,  accompanied  by  engravings, 
for  the  most  part,  of  fifty-nine  different  tile  machines, 
used  in  England,  France,  and  Germany.  Many  of  these 
machines  are  very  expensive,  but  at  the  same  time,  manu- 
facture a  large  number  of  tiles  daily.  One  machine  which 
is  there  figured  and  described,  would  require  eight  active 
boys  to  carry  away  the  tiles  as  fast  as  they  are  made — 
each  boy  taking  six  tiles  at  a  time ! 

In  this  country,  several  gentlemen  have  invented  ma- 
chines for  the  manufacture  of  tiles.  Of  those  in  most 
general  use,  in  this  state,  are  the  Mattice  &  Penfield 
machine  and  the  Daine's  machine.  We  present  a  cut  and 
a  short  description  of  each. 


344 


LAND   DRAINAGE. 


This  machine 
not  only  grinds  the 
clay,  and  molds  the 
tile,  but  places 
them  upon  the  dry 
ing  boards.  4,  re- 
presents the  die ; 
8,  the  tile;  and 
2,  2,  the  drying 
boards,  which  are 
cut  the  length  of 
three  tiles ;  and 
placed  upon  the 
carriage,  1,  the 
portion  of  which, 
under  the  machine, 
is  covered  with  an 
endless  belt,  upon 
which  these  boards 
are  placed,  on  the 
rear  of  the  car- 


Fro.  44.— MATTICE  &  PENFIELD'S  DRAIN  TILE  MACHINE. 


riage 


and   are 


drawn  under  by  the  tiles  as  they  issue  from  the  die,  and 
deposit  themselves  upon  the  boards.  7,  7,  is  a  frame, 
held  together  by  the  handles,  across  which  small  wires 
are  stretched,  8,  8,  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  the  tiles. 
This  frame  is  movable,  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  the 
tiles  where  the  end  of  the  board  occurs.  6,  is  the  shaft 
which  passes  through  the  machine,  upon  which  iron 
knives  are  fastened  to  grind  the  clay.  To  the  lower  ends, 
eccentrics  are  fastened,  that  move  the  plunger  in  the  clay 
box,  to  which  the  die,  4,  is  fastened.  5,  is  the  lever  by 
which  the  cut-off  plate  is  driven  over  the  clay  box.  after 
it  is  filled,  to  prevent  the  clay  from  pushing  back  up  in 


TILE  MACHINES.  345 

the  machine  when  the  plunger  pushes  it  out.  9,  is  the 
yoke  upon  which  a  slide  is  fastened,  driven  by  an  eccen- 
tric on  the  shaft  that  moves  the  lever,  the  plunger  throw- 
ing it  back  when  making  the  plunge,  where  it  remains, 
leaving  the  cavity  open  again.  A,  is  the  sweep.  The 
machine  makes  a  plunge  at  every  turn  of  the  shaft.  Less 
than  one  fourth  of  the  time  required  to  make  a  turn  of 
the  shaft,  makes  a  plunge,  which  gives  the  man  that  cuts 
the  tiles  ample  time  to  do  so,  and  set  them  on  the  drying 
racks,  which  are  placed  upon  the  carriage  for  the  purpose 
of  moving  them  from  the  press,  when  dried,  to  the  kiln. 
The  American  Tile  maker.  —  The  Tile  Maker  is  only 
eight  feet  in  length,  including  aprons.  It  is  mounted 
upon  wheels,  and  is  simple  in  construction,  easily  kept  in 
order,  and  not  liable  to  accident  from  any  ordinary  cause. 
It  will  make  horseshoe  or  sole  tile  of  any  size,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  die  which  may  be  used ;  the  power 
applied  to  drive  the  clay  through  the  dies  is  the  screw, 
worked  by  a  small  balance  wheel,  as  shown  in  the  engrav- 
ing. This  machine  is  made  of  cast  iron,  and  consists  of 
a  box  set  on  feet,  to  which  are  attached  small  wheels,  by 
which  it  can  be  moved  from  place  to  place.  The  iron  box 
or  frame  is  about  five  feet  in  length,  and  fourteen  inches 
wide ;  at  one  end  is  fastened  the  die,  which  is  easily  taken 
off  or  put  on  by  screws.  The  box  into  which  the  clay  is 
put,  and  in  which  the  square  plunger  compresses  the  clay 
through  the  die,  to  form  the  tile,  is  the  main  division  of 
the  frame,  and  occupies  about  two  feet  in  length ;  one 
half  of  this  division  is  covered  with  an  iron  plate,  screwed 
down  solid ;  the  other  consists  of  a  lid,  which  lifts  with  a 
handle,  and  which,  when  the  clay  is  filled  in  is  shut  and 
fastened  by  strong  iron  latches  on  each  side,  which  swing 
into  their  place  by  weights.  The  other  two  feet  of  the 
frame  is  occupied  by  the  iron  tube,  in  which  the  screw  of 


346 


LAND   DRAINAGE. 


FIG.  45.— DAINE'S  AMERICAN  TILE  MACHINE. 

the  piston  or  plunger  works,  which  is  worked  by  a  handle 
attached  to  a  small  balance  wheel ;  attached  to  the  end 
where  the  tiles  are  made,  is  a  small  wooden  frame,  sup- 
ported on  a  level  with  the  lower  line  of  the  die,  by  legs 
that  fold  up  when  it  is  taken  off  to  be  moved  or  packed 


TILE   MACHINES. 


347 


away ;  it  is  about  three  and  a  half  feet  in  length,  and  is 
made  in  three  divisions,  of  twelve  inches  each ;  these  divi- 
sions have  each  a  series  of  small  wooden  rollers,  on  which 
a  cloth  apron  moves  when  the  clay  is  forced  through  the 
die.  It  comes  out  in  three  long  parallel  tubes  of  tile, 
moved  and  supported  on  these  aprons,  each  of  which  is 
the  length  of  a  tile ;  when  the  table  is  full,  the  tiles  are 
cut  into  exact  lengths  by  wires  which  are  passed  down 
through  gauges,  which  form  a  part  of  the  wooden  frame- 
work of  the  apron  stand.  The  whole  is  easily  worked  in 
a  space  of  eight  by  ten  feet. 

But  the  following  cut  illustrates  the  simplest  and  cheap- 
est tile  machine  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge.  We 
propose  to  name  it  the  "  Buckeye  "  tile  machine  ;  it  may 
be  made  by  any  ordinary  mechanic,  at  a  cost  not  exceed- 
ing $5. 


FIG.  46.— THE  •' BUCKEYE"  TILE  MACHINE. 

It  consists  of  a  stout  box,  A,  whose  sides  are  about 
eight  inches  high,  twelve  long,  and  the  ends  about  eight 
wide.  The  back  part  of  the  box  is  occupied  by  a  post,  G, 
eight  inches  wide,  and  four  thick,  and  from  two  feet  to 


348  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

thirty  inches  high.  In  the  top  of  this  post  is  fastened  a 
lever,  H,  and  to  this  latter  is  fastened  the  plunger,  F.  The 
dies  are  represented  at  B.  The  box  is  filled  with  mortar, 
the  plunger  placed  on  the  mortar,  and  by  the  lever  is 
then  pushed  home ;  this  operation  forces  the  clay  through 
the  dies  and  forms  the  tiles.  The  carriage  consists  of 
twenty  rollers,  or  five  sets  of  four  rollers  each ;  over  each 
set  of  rollers  is  an  apron — the  force  and  weight  of  the  tile 
issuing  from  the  dies,  causes  them  to  rotate  so  as  to  carry 
off  the  tile  the  entire  length  of  the  carriage.  When  the 
tiles  are  forced  through  the  die,  and  cover  the  extent  of 
the  carriage,  the  frame,  E  E,  is  closed  like  a  lid  over  the 
tile,  and  cuts  them  by  means  of  the  wires,  D  D  D  D  D,  into 
proper  lengths.  They  are  then  removed  from  the  apron 
to  the  dryer. 

This  machine  can  be  operated,  in  all  its  departments, 
by  a  "man  and  a  boy" — the  man  to  fill  the  box,  press 
the  tile  and  cut  them  off,  while  the  boy  uses  an  implement 
shaped  somewhat  like  the  letter  Y,  or  rather,  like  a  two- 
pronked  table  fork — each  prong  about  ten  inches  in  length, 
and  one  inch  in  diameter.  The  prongs  are  inserted  into 
the  cavity  of  the  tiles  and  thus  borne  away  to  the  dryer. 

Not  much  reliance  can  be  placed  upon  statements,  as  to 
the  amount  of  tiles  which  may  be  made  in  a  day  upon  any 
of  the  machines — some  days  double,  if  not  triple  the 
amount  can  be  made  than  on  other  days.  Daine's  ma- 
chine claims  to  make  250  two  inch  tiles  in  an  hour — this 
would  amount  to  2,500  in  a  day  of  ten  hours.  From  700 
to  900  would  be  a  fair  day's  operation  on  the  "  Buck- 
eye." 

Pressing  the  pipes  is  a  very  simple  business.  The  blocks 
of  clay  are  to  be  placed  in  the  press-box,  and  hammered 
in  the  filling,  to  prevent  the  retention  of  any  air,  as  this 
might  occasion  the  bursting  of  the  pipes,  or  the  formation 


DRYING   TILES.  349 

of  air-cells  in  their  walls,  to  such  an  extent  as  to  render 
them  useless.  When  the  clay  is  properly  packed  in,  the 
cover  shut  down  and  secured,  and  the  press  put  in  motion, 
the  wince  is  turned  until  the  truckle-bed  is  filled — the 
cutting  apparatus  is  brought  down,  and  one  pressing  of 
the  rough  pipes  is  completed. 

The  smaller  kinds  of  pipe  must  be  handled  by  means  of 
properly  made  forks,  with  extreme  care,  and  placed  upon 
a  drying  rack.  If  great  care  be  not  taken,  the  sides  of  the 
pipes  will  either  fall  together,  or  the  soft  clay  will  be 
pressed  out  of  shape,  and  the  passage  more  or  less  ob- 
structed. The  larger  kinds  are  taken  off  the  truckle-bed 
by  hand,  and  set  up  perpendicularly  for  drying. 

As  all  kinds  of  clay  and  loam  shrink  more  or  less  in 
drying,  this  change  of  volume  must  be  regarded  in  the 
pressing;  and  because  different  qualities  of  clay  have 
different  shrinkage  in  drying  and  burning ;  and  because 
of  the  different  degrees  of  humidity  at  which  the  clay  is 
worked,  and  the  different  length  of  time  the  working  is 
continued,  and  that  of  drying  and  burning  required — all 
have  their  influence  upon  this  shrinkage — no  rule  can 
be  given  of  general  application,  and  every  manufacturer 
must  learn  by  experience  to  give  a  proper  length  and 
thickness  to  his  drain  tiles.  As  a  general  thing,  if  the 
green  tile  are  13  inch  in  length,  they  will  scarcely  be  12 
inches  long  when  burned;  and  tile  measuring  2  inches 
from  outside  to  outside,  when  green,  will  not  measure 
over  1  j  when  burned. 

Drying  tiles  is  a  matter  of  great  importance,  and  spe- 
cial attention  must  be  directed  to  this  part  of  the  manu- 
facturing process.  The  tile  to  be  good  must  be  dried  in 
a  shed ;  in  fact,  a  good  shed  is  indispensable  to  the  manu- 
.facture  of  tiles.  The  clay  must  be  tough  to  retain  its 
shape  after  running  through  the  dies  of  the  tile  machine; 


350  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

and  such  clay  will  warp  and  crack  in  drying,  unless  the 
process  is  conducted  in  the  shade.  If  the  manufacture 
goes  on  under  a  shed,  no  time  is  lost  on  account  of  rainy 
days,  and  the  tiles,  while  drying,  are  protected  alike  from 
rain  and  sun. 

A  convenient  arrangement  of  the  shed  is  of  consider- 
able importance ;  in  form,  it  is  long  and  narrow,  and  must 
be  so  set  as  to  allow  the  kiln  to  be  put  directly  at  one  end, 
while  the  clay  bank  or  pit  and  pug  mill  are  at  the  other. 
Where  it  is  intended  to  make  from  one  hundred  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  tiles  in  a  season,  the  shed  will 
need  to  be  sixty  feet  in  length  by  eighteen  in  width. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  put  up  an  expensive  frame,  a 
lighter  structure  answering  equally  well.  Four  sills, 
either  of  timber  or  plank,  may  be  laid  upon  the  ground, 
and  leveled  to  receive  the  feet  of  the  posts.  The  sills 
are  laid  parallel  to  each  other,  and  lengthwise  of  the  shed 
the  inner  ones  ten  feet  apart,  and  the  outer  ones,  one  on 
each  side,  and  four  feet  from  the  inner.  The  posts  made 
of  scantling,  four  inches  square,  stand  upon  the  sills, 
making  two  rows  on  either  side  of  the  central  space. 
The  outer  posts  may  be  six  feet  in  length,  and  the  inner 
eight  feet  six  inches,  the  tops  being  halved  to  receive 
the  rafters,  of  two-by-four  scantling.  It  is  convenient 
to  have  these  posts  and  rafters  of  a  uniform  distance  of 
six  feet  apart,  through  the  whole  length  of  the  shed. 
The  rafters  may  be  tied  together  by  three  pieces  of  the 
same  scantling,  and  these  so  placed  as  to  give  the  best 
support  to  the  roof  boards,  which  lie  lengthwise  up  and 
down  the  roof.  The  rafters  and  roof  boards  should  be 
fourteen  feet  in  length,  so  as  to  project  about  three  feet 
beyond  the  outer  posts ;  this  is  to  prevent  the  rain  from 
beating  under  and  injuring  the  tiles.  The  supports  for  the 
shelves  are  narrow  strips  of  board  nailed  to  the  scantling 


DRYING   TILES.  351 

posts,  the  top  of  one  being  eight  inches  from  the  top  of  the 
next.  The  shelf  boards  should  be  twelve  feet  long ;  they 
will  then  have  a  support  at  both  ends ;  and  in  the  middle 
they  should  be  made  of  narrow  but  straight  and  well  sea- 
soned oak  stuff,  and  laid  loose  upon  their  supports,  and  at  a 
distance  of  about  an  inch  from  each  other.  The  tiles  dry 
better  on  these  than  upon  wide  boards.  In  this  way  the 
shed  will  have  shelving  on  each  side  of  the  central  space 
in  which  the  tiles  are  made ;  each  shelf  inside  the  posts, 
will  be  a  little  more  than  three  feet  wide,  which  is  suffi- 
cient for  three  tiles  endwise  in  the  green  state  ;  there  will 
be  nine  tier  of  shelves,  one  over  the  other.  A  shed  of 
this  size  will  dry  about  ten  thousand  tiles  at  a  time. 

Through  the  center  of  the  shed  a  railway  track  should 
be  laid.  This  may  be  made  of  two-by-four  scantling  set 
endwise,  and  tied  together  by  cross  pieces,  and  sunk 
nearly  to  the  level  of  the  floor.  Upon  this  a  little  four- 
wheeled  car  runs,  carrying  the  clay  from  the  pug  mill  to 
the  tile  machine,  and  afterward  the  tiles  from  the  shelves 
to  the  kiln. 

A  shed  something  like  what  is  described  above  is  needed 
where  hand  tile  machines,  similar  in  principle  to  Daines', 
are  used.  If  it  be  intended  to  use  Penfield's  tile  machine, 
which  works  by  horse  power,  and  has  another  arrange- 
ment for  drying,  scarcely  any  shedding  is  absolutely  re- 
quired. In  this  method,  the  tile  machine  being  a  fixture, 
drying  carriages  are  constructed,  and  these  are  put  on  a 
track  connecting  the  machine  to  the  kiln,  and  are  moved 
along  as  they  are  filled. 

The  internal  arrangement  of  the  shed  should  be  such 
that  the  tile  machine  may  be  placed  as  near  the  center  as 
possible.  In  the  east  and  west  ends  of  the  shed  "  racks," 
as  represented  in  the  following  cut,  should  be  placed,  on 
which  to  dry  the  tile.  Tile  should  always  be  dried  in  the 


352 


LAND   DRAINAGE. 


47. — RACK  FOR  DRYING  TILE. 

shade — they  dry  more  uniformly  there  than  in  the  sun ; 
beside,  should  inclement  weather  intervene,  they  are  then 
protected.  The  rack  is  very  cheaply  and  simply  made ; 
b  is  an  upright,  made  of  scantling,  say,  3-by-4  inches,  on 
which  are  fastened,  with  4  or  5-inch  spikes,  the  bats  a,  a, 
a,  a;  the  slats  or  dryers,  c,  c,  on  which  the  tile  are  placed, 
may  be  of  lath  one-by-one  and  half  inches.  The  uprights 
(b)  should  be  no  more  than  6  feet  apart — in  fact,  4  feet  is 
a  good  distance — in  order  to  prevent  the  slats  from  warp- 
ing, or  "  sagging"  as  the  tile  makers  say. 

The  cut  is  intended  to  represent  a  rack  to  dry  16-inch 
tile  ;  but  it  is  best  to  make  them  wide  enough,  so  that  three 
tile  may  be  laid  on  endwise.  The  vertical  spaces  between 
the  slats  c,  c,  or  bats  «,  a9  a,  #,  should  vary  with  the  size 
of  the  tile  made — thus  the  distance  from  a  to  a  should  be 
greater  for  three  than  for  1  J-inch  tile.  When  the  tile  are 
molded  by  the  machine  they  are  carried  away  and  placed 
upon  the  dryers,  as  represented  at  d,  d. 

Or  the  drying  racks  may  be  conveniently  made  as  fol- 


DRYING    TILES.  353 

lows  :  Two  upright  posts  of  roofing  %lath  should  be  fixed 
sufficiently  far  apart  to  permit  one  end  of  a  drying  board 
to  go  between  them,  and  at  the  length  of  this  board  two 
more  to  receive  the  other  end.  When  the  tiles  are  cut 
off,  they  should  be  closely  laid  upon  drying  boards,  the 
length  of  which  should,  for  convenience,  be  about  four  or 
live  feet,  and  the  width  equal  to  the  length  of  the  tiles. 
When  the  board  is  full  it  should  be  placed  in  the  rack, 
yupon  pieces  of  scantling  or  other  supports,  and  upon  each 
end  should  be  placed  a  similar  piece  of  scantling,  half  an 
inch  or  so  thicker  than  the  tile,  and  upon  these  the  next 
drying  board  filled  is  to  be  placed — the  other  supporting 
scantlings  at  the  ends  and  drying  boards  upon  them  until 
the  rack  has  been  filled  to  the  desired  hight.  The  number 
of  racks  and  their  distance  apart  must  be  determined  by 
the  size  of  the  dry  house  and  the  necessary  movements 
between  them. 

Upon  these  racks  the  tiles  remain  to  be  dried,  but  they 
still  require  constant  care  and  watching  to  effect  drying 
properly.  To  keep  the  tiles  straight,  they  should  be 
placed  close  together,  and  if,  in  the  process  of  drying, 
they  become  curved,  the  bow  should  be  twined  upward,  so 
that  they  may  assume  their  straight  form  again.  The  ad- 
mission of  air  should  be  carefully  regulated  to  dry  the  tiles 
uniformly;  otherwise,  they  are  liable  to  crack.  In  point 
of  fact,  the  tile  should  be  dried  by  the  winds — not  by  hot 
southern  winds,  but  cool  north  or  northwest  ones. 

If  the  clay  is  well  prepared,  and  proper  attention  paid 
to  the  pipes  during  the  drying  process,  the  remaining 
parts  of  the  fabrication  will  go  on  well.  The  admission 
of  air  in  proper  quantity  is  always  a  matter  of  importance. 

The  larger  kinds  of  pipe,  which  are  placed  upright 
while  drying,  should  be  reversed  frequently,  until  hard 
enough  to  be  laid  down  without  injury,  because  the  upper 
31 


354  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

end  always  dries  the  most  rapidly.  "When  the  pipes  be- 
come somewhat  dry,  they  may  be  laid  in  piles  of  several 
pipes  in  hight,  according  to  their  dryness  ;  and,  when  dry 
enough  to  burn,  five  or  six  of  even  the  largest  size  may 
be  superimposed  upon  each  other. 

Some  manufacturers  dry  their  pipes  upon  hurdles  or 
frames  made  of  laths,  in  order  to  favor  the  admission  of 
air;  but  this  mode  has  scarcely  any  advantage  over  the 
simple  drying  board,  and  is  far  more  expensive,  and  the 
pipes  are  more  liable  to  be  bent  by  being  placed  upon  such 
racks. 

Rolling  and  rimming  the  tiles  is  to  be  performed  to  se- 
cure a  faultless  product,  and  is  done  when  they  have  lain 
long  enough  to  be  somewhat  stiff,  but  still  not  hard  enough 
to  crack  when  handled  and  bent.  This  step  in  the  pro- 
gress of  fabrication  is  too  much  neglected  in  this  country, 
but  in  England  is  considered  indispensable. 

Rolling  the  pipes  is  thus  performed :  A  round,  smooth 
stick,  one  quarter  or  one  third  of  an  inch  less  in  diameter 
than  the  clear  capacity  of  the  pipe,  and  long  enough  to 
reach  through  and  afford  a  hand  hold  at  each  end,  is  passed 
through  the  opening,  and  the  pipe  gently  rolled  upon  a 
smooth  table  two  or  three  times  to  straighten  it,  and  thus 
prevent  any  inequality  which  may  have  occurred  during 
the  progress  of  drying  from  becoming  permanent.  After 
rolling,  the  pipes  are  rimmed,  by  inserting  into  each  end 
alternately  and  turning  around  the  rimmer  a  wooden  in- 
strument, which  is  constructed  of  a  round,  smooth  stick, 
just  large  enough  to  fill  the  end  of  the  pipe,  around  the 
end  of  the  shaft  of  which,  and  between  it  and  the  handle, 
is  a  collar,  or  square  offset.  This  instrument,  properly 
used,  gives  an  exactly  square  end  to  the  pipe,  and  insures 
their  closely  fitting  together  when  laid  down.  The  top 
or  shaft  of  the  instrument  should  be  somewhat  tapering, 


TILE   BURNING.  355 

so  as  to  favor  its  insertion  and  only  exactly  fill  the  open- 
ing at  the  shoulder  or  collar.  This  shape  favors  its  inser- 
tion and  prevents  the  clay  from  being  pushed  into  ridges 
when  it  is  inserted. 

The  operations  of  rolling  and  rimming  are  very  import- 
ant to  secure  good  tiles,  and  the  expense  is  so  slight  that 
it  will  be  more  than  repaid  in  the  better  quality  of  the 
product. 

For  convenience,  a  light  table,  about  fifteen  inches 
broad  (where  the  tiles  are  twelve  inches  long),  should  be 
used.  The  tiles  can  be  lifted  off  and  on  the  drying  board 
by  means  of  the  rolling  pin,  and  the  table  moved  forward 
as  the  work  progresses,  and  in  this  manner  the  process 
may  go  on  very  rapidly. 

Tile  burning. — This  is  performed  when  the  tiles  are  per- 
fectly dry,  and  can  only  be  done  well  by  a  person  ac- 
quainted with  the  business.  No  extended  description  can 
supply  a  want  of  practical  knowledge,  but  a  word  of  ad- 
monition, in  regard  to  important  moments  in  the  process, 
may  be  of  great  utility.  One  indispensable  matter  is  a 
proper  burning  kiln.  Almost  any  kind  of  lime  or  potters' 
kiln  may  be  made  use  of,  but  an  oven  especially  adapted 
will  be  found  of  great  advantage. 

In  establishing  a  tile  yard,  it  is  usual  to  make  and  burn 
a  clamp  of  bricks,  in  the  first  instance ;  then  to  use  the 
scoving,  the  soft  and  other  waste  bricks  for  building  the 
kiln.  If  the  intention  is  to  make  from  one  to  two  hundred 
thousand  in  a  season,  a  kiln  11  feet  by  13  in  the  inside, 
and  10  feet  high,  will  be  a  suitable  size.  A  kiln  of  such 
dimensions  will  hold  about  15,000  tiles,  the  number  vary- 
ing, of  course,  according  to  their  size,  beside  bricks  enough 
to  fill  to  the  top  of  the  arches.  The  kiln  must  be  built  at 
one  end  of  the  shed,  and  directly  in  a  line  with  it,  so  that 
the  doorway  into  the  side  of  the  kiln,  through  which  the 


356  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

tiles  are  carried  to  be  set,  may  be  on  a  line  with  the  oar 
track  of  the  shed.  Directly  opposite  this  doorway  there 
should  be  a  similar  opening  on  the  other  side  of  the  kiln, 
through  which  the  burnt  tiles  may  be  carried.  The  fire 
holes  will  be  through  the  narrowest  sides  of  the  kiln,  or 
those  which  correspond  with  the  sides  of  the  shed.  For 
a  kiln  of  the  size  named,  there  will  be  four  fire  holes,  each 
"end  of  which  will  be  open.  The  walls  of  the  kiln  should 
not  be  less  than  two  feet  six  inches  in  thickness  at  the 
bottom,  and  three  feet  is  still  better.  They  are  carried 
up  perpendicularly  on  the  inside,  but  gradually  becoming 
thinner  toward  the  top,  by  drawing  in  on  the  outside. 
They  are  better  built  of  tempered  clay,  mixed  with  a  con- 
siderable proportion  of  sand,  than  of  lime  mortar.  Some 
25,000  bricks  will  be  required  to  build  such  a  kiln  as  the 
one  described. 

Tile  kilns,  of  the  following  construction,  will  be  found 
very  appropriate  for  the  purpose.  There  are  two  princi- 
pal forms  of  construction  in  vogue  in  Europe — one  of 
which  is  the  high  kiln,  and  the  other  the  loiv  kiln.  The 
high  kilns  are  commonly  20  to  24  feet  long,  10  to  12  feet 
wide,  and  the  arch  10  to  12  feet  high,  measured  in  the 
clear.  The  walls  are  made  four  courses  of  brick  thick, 
and  are  supported  by  buttresses  in  the  longitudinal  walls. 
Between  the  buttresses,  on  each  side,  there  are  8  furnace 
holes,  15  inches  wide  and  about  twice  as  high,  and  pro- 
vided with  a  grate  and  ash  box.  They  permit  the  firing 
to  be  done  by  means  of  wood,  coal  or  turf.  The  door, 
placed  at  one  end,  should  be  wide  enough  to  admit  of 
wheeling  in  the  tiles,  and  must  be  walled  up  when  the 
burning  is  begun.  Inside,  between  each  pair  of  furnaces, 
there  is  a  small  flue,  3  to  4  inches  square,  which,  passing 
up  the  wall -and  along  the  arch,  terminates  in  low  chim- 
neys formed  conveniently  of  tile  pipe  of  proper  size. 


TILE   BURNING.  357 

There  are  beside  6  or  8  rows  of  small  smoke  stacks,  4  to 
5  inches  in  clear  diameter,  and  2  feet  high,  which  pass 
through  the  arch,  that  may  be  opened  or  closed  on  the 
outside  at  pleasure,  and  by  means  of  which  the  heat  may 
be  regulated  according  to  requirement  during  the  process 
of  burning.  Such  a  kiln  resembles  very  much  a  common 
tile  kiln.  40,000  or  50,000  pieces,  of  different  dimensions, 
may  be  burnt  in  such  a  kiln,  if  space  be  economized,  by 
placing  the  smaller  pipes  inside  of  the  larger  ones.  The 
furnaces  must  be  covered  with  an  arch  of  masonry,  else 
the  pipes  placed  immediately  upon  the  top  of  the  furnace 
would  be  over-burnt. 

The  low  kiln  resembles  a  common  potter's  oven,  and  is 
now  greatly  in  vogue,  as  it  is  easily  built,  and  yields  a 
well  burnt  product.  Such  a  kiln  consists  of  a  long  arch, 
8  to  10  feet  high,  14  to  16  feet  long,  and  10  to  12  feet 
wide  in  the  clear.  The  walls  and  arch  may  be  built  very 
thin,  if  supported  by  iron  arch  bands — 6  or  8  inch  walls 
being  sufficient.  But  latterly  the  walls  have  been  built 
thicker  and  supported  by  buttresses.  At  one  end  is  placed 
the  chimney,  and  at  the  other  end  the  door  for  wheeling 
in  the  tiles.  On  each  side  of  the  door  is  built  a  furnace, 
of  18  to  20  inches  breadth,  and  10  to  15  inches  hight,  and 
a  third  furnace  is  fixed  in  the  doorway  when  this  is  walled 
up.  Immediately  behind  the  doorway  wall  is  placed  the 
ash  pit,  2J  feet  broad  and  6  to  10  inches  deep.  The  hearth 
of  the  oven  lies  a  little  higher  than  the  opening  of  the  ash 
pit,  and  behind  this  again  there  is  a  depression  9  inches 
wide  and  6  deep,  in  which  originate  four  flues,  which,  Jeadr 
ing  through  the  walls,  terminate  in  the  chimney.  The 
chimney  is  not  placed,  as  in  the  potter's  oven,  upon  the 
arch,  but  at  the  end,  so  that  the  fire  may  be  forced  to  pass 
over  all  the  pipes,  which  are  thus  uniformly  burnt  in  all 
parts.  The  chimney  is  about  15  to  18  inches  clear  in 


358  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

diameter.  In  the  walls  and  gable  ends  are  vents,  which 
during  burning  are  walled  up,  but  are  opened  when  this 
is  finished,  so  as  to  favor  cooling. 

Twenty  to  twenty-five  thousand  pipes  of  different  sizes 
can  be  placed  in  such  a  kiln.  When  the  tiles  are  wheeled 
in  for  arrangement,  bricks  are  placed  upright  upon  the 
hearth,  and  the  pipes  are  set  upon  these  perpendicularly, 
so  that  the  fire  may  readily  draw  through  the  whole. 
When  the  kiln  is  filled,  a  sieve-like  wall  of  a  single  course 
of  brick,  is  built  up  to  force  the  fire  to  spread  equally 
through  the  entire  oven,  and  at  the  same  time  to  protect, 
in  some  measure,  the  first  courses  of  tile-s  from  the  ex- 
cessive action  of  the  fire. 

The  following  precautions  must  be  observed  in  burn- 
ing: 

The  tiles  should  not  be  placed  in  the  oven  before  they 
are  perfectly  dry ;  but  in  case  it  is  necessary  to  do  so, 
they  must  be  dried  there,  by  being  subjected,  very  gradu- 
ally, to  the  heat  of  a  slow  fire,  in  order  to  dry  them  thor- 
oughly, before  heating  them  very  much,  as  tiles  burnt 
rapidly,  in  a  damp  condition,  are  nearly  always  bent  and 
full  of  cracks. 

The  pipes  are  placed  in  the  oven,  perpendicularly  upon 
the  hearth  and  brick  work  which  forms  the  furnace  pas- 
sages. Small  pipes  are  put  into  larger  ones,  but  not  so 
nearly  of  a  size,  as  to  hinder  a  free  play  of  the  fire  be- 
tween them.  Six  inch  pipe  may  be  filled  with  three  or 
four  inch  pipe,  and  these  with  inch  pipe.  This  mode  of 
placing  is  for  the  purpose  of  saving  space.  The  upper 
tier  of  pipes  may  be  placed  horizontally,  but  the  lower 
ones  could  not  sustain  the  superincumbent  pressure  were 
they  so  placed. 

It  is  very  important  to  be  provided  with  good  fuel,  and 
to  keep  the  heat  at  an  even  temperature  throughout  the 


TILE   BURNING.  359 

process.  If  the  draught  of  the  wind  cause  the  heat  to 
be  excessive  upon  one  side,  this  can  be  remedied  in  the 
high  oven,  by  opening  or  closing  the  smoke  stacks ;  and 
in  the  low  oven,  by  varying  the  intensity  of  the  fire  upon 
one  or  the  other  side,  as  the  case  may  require. 

When  the  burning  is  completed,  precaution  is  necessary 
to  prevent  too  rapid  cooling,  otherwise  the  tiles  will  be 
found  much  cracked.  It  often  happens  that  tiles  are 
found  imperfectly  baked,  and  are  denominated  "  pale  "  or 
"  soft."  These  can  not  be  used,  as  they  crumble  to 
pieces  in  the  wet,  and  should  be  reburnt  with  the  next 
kiln  full.  If  at  any  particular  part  of  the  kiln  the  tiles 
are  commonly  imperfectly  burned,  the  "  soft"  tiles  of  one 
burning  may  be  placed  in  that  part  for  the  next  burning, 
and  they  will  thus  become  sufficiently  baked. 

Fuel. — In  many  localities  coal  is  cheaper  than  wood, 
and  fortunately  it  answers  the  purpose  equally  as  well. 
Where  wood  is  employed,  the  soft  kinds  are  greatly  pre- 
ferred to  the  hard.  Soft  maple,  basswood,  whitewood  and 
chestnut,  are  the  best,  making  a  steadier  heat  and  more 
flame.  For  kiln  use,  wood  must  be  thoroughly  seasoned, 
split  tolerably  fine,  of  the  length  of  the  holes  or  shorter. 
A  cord  of  good  wood  should  burn  about  three  thousand 
tiles. 

Burning. — When  holes  are  made  on  both  sides  of  the 
kiln,  as  recommended,  the  burning  is  effected  on  one  side 
at  a  time.  By  this  method,  more  time  is  probably  con- 
sumed, though  not  more  wood,  and  there  is  less  danger 
of  an  unequal  or  insufficient  burn.  In  burning  tiles,  it 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  soft  burnt  are  worthless, 
and  only  those  that  are  thoroughly  hard,  and  will  ring 
when  struck,  are  of  any  value.  It  requires  from  two 
days  and  a  night,  to  four  days  and  nights,  to  burn  a  kiln 
of  tiles,  the  difference  depending  on  the  kind  of  fuel,  the 


360  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

character   of   the  clay,  and  the   method  pursued — they 
should  be  allowed  from  48  to  60  hours  to  cool. 

We  translate  the  following  from  Barrel!' s  work  on 
drainage : 

"  Burning. — The  operation  of  burning  the  pipes  comprises  three 
divisions :  1.  Placing  the  tiles  into  the  oven.  2.  Conducting  off  the 
fire.  3.  Cooling  and  removing  from  the  oven. 

"  The  burning  of  pipes  is  of  great  importance,  for  it  affects  both 
the  quality  and  the  price  of  the  manufactured  article.  Therefore, 
the  more  perfect  is  the  oven,  or  kiln,  the  better  and  cheaper  will  be 
the  pipe.  We  can  not  enter  into  any  description  of  the  numerous 
improvements  on  the  subject  which  have  transpired,  a  whole  book 
would  not  suffice ;  but  we  will  give  general  outlines  in  the  expres- 
sions of  Mr.  Brongniart,  the  most  competent  writer  on  the  '  Ceramic 
Art :' 

"'An  oven  contains  four  principal  parts,  viz:  The  fire  place,  the 
mouth,  the  laboratory  and  the-  chimney;  in  the  fire  place  is  thrown 
the  fuel,  whatever  it  may  be ;  the  mouth  is  an  opening  through  which 
the  air  is  introduced  which  is  to  sustain  combustion ;  the  laboratory 
is  the  place  where  the  articles  to  be  burned  are  placed ;  the  chim- 
ney is  a  channel  though  which  the  gases  escape  after  having  pro- 
duced their  effect. 

"  '  Some  ovens  have  no  special  chimney — it  is  a  part  of  the  labo- 
ratory— into  these  the  flame  or  gas  is  directed  from  the  fire  place 
through  holes  or  openings  named  'carneaux;'  when  the  flame  is  not 
admitted  into  the  laboratory,  and  goes  directly  into  the  chimney, 
the  heat  is  received  by  radiation.' 

'"We  will  suppose  an  ordinary  potter's  kiln  is  employed,  and  pro- 
ceed to  the  operation  of  placing  the  pipes  into  the  laboratory :  A 
layer  of  common  brick  is  to  be  disposed  in  a  vertical  position,  at  a 
small  distance  from  each  other,  on  the  floor  of  the  oven  ;  upon  these, 
the  pipes  of  the  largest  diameter  are  to  be  placed,  one  upon  the  other, 
so  as  to  form  layers  up  to  the  top;  some  manufacturers  place  the 
pipes  upright  in  the  same  position  as  they  were  arranged  to  dry;  this 
system  is  evidently  favorable,  because  it  results  therefrom  that  each 
series  of  pipes  placed  on  ends  form  as  many  chimneys,  which  favor 
the  draft,  and  distribute  more  equally  the  heat.  The  fire  is  next 
kindled,  and  kept  at  first  very  slow ;  after  a  few  days  heat  may  grad- 
ually be  increased  up  to  the  highest  possible  degree;  during  that 


TILE  BURNING.  361 

time  the  utmost  care  and  constant  attention  are  necessary  to  avoid 
accidents. 

"  *  When  the  burning  is  not  complete,  or  otherwise  defective,  the 
pipes  remain  tender,  earthy,  with  a  dull  color,  either  white  or  red ; 
they  are  not  sonorous,  and  break  or  shell  off  under  the  influence  of 
the  air ;  they  facilitate  the  generation  of  saltpeter,  crumble  to  pieces, 
are  destroyed  in  a  very  short  period  or  time,  and  finally  ruin  the 
drains. 

"  '  Should,  on  the  contrary,  the  fire  be  untimely,  or  excessive,  the  ma- 
terial will  melt  in  part,  the  pipes  become  dark  brown  or  black,  out  of 
shape,  and  stick  to  each  other  in  cooling.  From  this  may  be  seen 
how  important  it  is  to  secure  the  right  degree  of  heat,  which  pro- 
duces tile  between  a  dark  and  a  very  bright  red ;  this  may  be  easily 
watched,  by  keeping,  within  reach  show  pieces,  which  may  be  ex- 
tracted through  convenient  holes ;  it  is  advisable  not  to  hurry  the 
operation  of  burning.  When  the  fire  has  been  brought  to  the  proper 
degree  of  intensity,  it  must  be  gradually  diminished,  and  suppressed 
altogether ;  then  the  mouth  and  chimney  of  the  oven  are  to  be  closed 
so  as  to  exclude  carefully  the  cold  air;  all  must  be  left  in  this  state, 
during  several  days,  to  permit  the  pipes  gradually  to  cool  down, 
otherwise  they  would  crack  or  burst  to  pieces. 

"  'A  skillful  burner  will,  at  the  proper  time,  remove  the  pipes  from 
the  oven,  with  hardly  any  breakage,  or  at  most  from  two  to  five  per 
cent;  whereas  the  loss  may  be  considerable  from  want  of  skill  or 
care.'  " 

The  price  of  tile  at  tileries,  throughout  Ohio,  is  yet 
entirely  too  great  to  induce  farmers,  generally,  to  adopt 
tile  draining,  where  they  are  obliged  to  rely  upon  the 
tileries  for  supplies.  There  is  no  good  reason — other 
than  the  fact  that  tile  making  is  yet  a  new  business,  and 
not  thoroughly  understood — why  tile  should  cost  any  more 
than  common  brick.  The  amount  of  material  used  in  a 
single  brick  will  make  from  two  to  four  or  five  tile,  ac- 
cording to  size ;  while  the  amount  of  heat  required  to 
burn  one  brick  will  burn  more  tile  than  can  be  made  from 
the  material  in  the  brick.  True,  a  little  more  care  is 
necessary  in  arranging  the  tile  in  the  kiln  ;  a  much  smaller 
32 


362  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

quantity  can  be  burned  at  a  time  than  of  brick,  and  every 
defective  or  warped  tile  is  worthless  ;  these,  of  course,  are 
drawbacks,  but  in  course  of  time  they  will  in  a  very  great 
degree  be  obviated.  Good  tile  can  be  obtained  at  Cleve- 
land, Columbus,  Cincinnati,  Woodstock,  Painesville,  Spring- 
field, Claridon,  etc.,  in  Ohio,  at  reasonable  rates. 


CHAPTER     VI. 


HOW  WATER  ENTERS  THE  PIPES. 

THIS  question  is  asked  by  all  persons  who,  for  the  first 
time,  direct  their  attention  to  the  subject  of  drainage, 
and  the  solution  of  the  problem  involved  in  the  inquiry, 
is  rather  a  subject  of  scientific  interest  than  a  matter  of 
practical  moment;  for  the  water  does  find  ingress,  as 
experiment  proves.  But  nevertheless,  there  are  some 
practical  bearings  in  the  question  which  demand  investi- 
gation. 

In  the  ordinary  arrangement  of  strata  of  earth,  there  is 
a  very  permeable  layer  or  soil  and  subsoil,  and  below,  a 
less  permeable  stratum  or  "  hard-pan."  The  water  of 
rains  descends  to  this  stratum,  and  is  there  retained  for 
a  longer  time  than  in  the  more  permeable  soils  above ;  and 
it  is  a  consequence  of  this  retention,  that  the  upper  strata 
become  submerged  with  water. 

When  drains  are  laid  much  above  the  level  of  this  re- 
tentive stratum,  they  do  not  begin  to  carry  off  the  sur- 
face water  until  this  has  completely  saturated  the  whole 
depth  of  soil  from  the  "  hard-pan  "  up  to  the  level  of  the 
drains,  which  thus  obtains  the  water  which  enters  it  from 
below.  It  was  at  one  time  supposed  to  be  disadvantage- 
ous to  the  object  intended,  if  the  surface  water  made  its 
way  immediately  downward  into  the  drains,  as  it  was 
supposed  to  be  not  sufficiently  filtered,  and  much  of  the 
soil  enriching  contents  would  be  carried  away  into  the 
drain,  when  it  should  have  remained  in  the  soil.  To 
obviate  the  immediate  descent  of  the  water  into  the  drain, 

C363J 


364  LAND   DKAINAGE. 

it  was  recommended  to  cover  the  newly-laid  pipe  with  a 
layer  of  sand,  or  other  porous  material,  two  or  three  inches, 
and  then  overlay  it  with  a  covering  of  stiff  clay,  which 
would  cause  the  more  even  and  natural  descent  of  the 
surface  water  to  the  impermeable  stratum  below,  and  its 
subsequent  ascent  to  the  drain  level,  into  the  bottom  of 
which  it  finds  entrance.  But  recent  experiments  have 
shown  the  fallacy  of  this  doctrine.  We  have  shown,  in 
the  experiments  of  Liebig  and  others,  that  the  soil  at  once 
absorbs  all  the  nutritious  properties  borne  down  by  the 
rains.  The  permeable  strata  will  not  yield  their  moisture 
to  the  drain  until  the  point  of  saturation  has  been  reached 
below. 

The  manner  in  which  the  water  finds  admission  into  the 
drain  pipe,  when  it  has  once  found  its  way  to  it,  is  very 
simple  and  easy  of  explanation.  If  the  whole  drain  were 
one  continued,  unbroken  pipe,  submerged  into  a  supersat- 
urated soil,  a  portion  of  water  would  find  its  way  by 
means  of  what  may  be  termed  soakage,  through  the  some- 
what porous  walls  of  the  pipes,  as  water  makes  its  way 
slowly  through  bricks.  This  soaking  or  sweating  process 
would  go  on  more  readily  through  soft,  poorly  burned 
pipes ;  but  in  tiles  very  thoroughly  burned,  it  would  go 
on  very  slowly ;  so  slowly  as  to  defeat  the  purpose  for 
which  such  tiles  are  laid  down.  The  proportion  of  water, 
however,  which  enters  the  jointed  pipes  (the  only  ones 
used)  by  soakage,  is  so  inconsiderable,  that  we  must  look 
for  some  other  mode  of  entrance,  in  answer  to  the  ques- 
tion, "  How  does  it  get  in  ?" 

No  jointed  pipe  can  be  made  and  laid  down,  in  which 
the  joints  will  fit  sufficiently  close  to  prevent  the  free 
access  of  water  to  the  empty  space  within  the  tube.  The 
facility  for  entrance,  by  this  means,  afforded  by  a  pipe  of 
any  size,  under  four  inches,  200  feet  long,  made  of  13 


HOW   WATER   ENTERS   THE   PIPES.  365 

inch  sections,  will  exceed,  by  far,  the  capacity  of  the 
same  pipe  to  discharge  the  stream  which  might  thus  find 
entrance.  The  water,  then,  enters  at  the  joints,  which 
can  not  he  made  close  enough  to  prevent  its  ingress,  and, 
when  properly  laid  down,  the  water  entering  the  drain 
has  its  course  from  below  upward. 

Kielman  appears  to  doubt,  that  sufficient  space  would 
occur  between  the  joints  of  twelve  or  thirteen  inch  pipe 
to  carry  off  the  water  which  would  collect.  But  being 
satisfied  that  the  joints  were  the  only  place  at  which  water 
could  enter,  he  manufactured  tiles  having  a  length  of 
nine  inches  only,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  admission  of 
water.  This  we  consider  very  bad  policy;  because  it 
makes  not  only  more  joints  than  are  necessary,  but  be- 
cause short  joints  are  more  subject  to  disturbances  than 
long  ones.  In  fact,  sixteen  or  eighteen  inch  tiles  afford 
sufficient  joint  apertures  for  all  the  water  they  can  convey 
away.  There  have  been  many  calculations  with  regard 
to  the  amount  of  space  between  the  joints  of  pipes ;  and 
although  we  have  quoted  Messrs.  Shedd  and  Edson,  at 
page  282,  as  being  correct  in  the  main,  we  yet  prefer,  as 
a  matter  of  mathematical  precision,  those  made  by  Vin- 
cent. He  says,  in  effect,  that  water  requires  no  other 
means  of  entering  the  pipes  than  the  spaces  at  the  joints. 
The  inner  circumference  of  a  one  inch  pipe,  amounts  to 
about  three  inches.  If,  then,  the  width  between  the 
joints  is  assumed  to  be  one  eighth  of  a  line,  or  one  ninety- 
sixth  part  of  an  inch,  which,  in  all  probability,  is  the  least 
possible  space  which  is  likely  to  occur,  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  it  produces  an  entrance  space  equivalent  to 
one  thirty-second  of  a  square  inch.  The  section  or  open- 
ing of  a  one  inch  pipe  would  then  have  a  capacity  of 
nearly  three  fourths  of  a  square  inch;  Then,  twenty-four 
or  twenty -five  joints,  each  having  an  entrance  capacity  at 


366  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

the  joints  of  one  ninety-sixth  of  an  inch,  will  have  an 
aggregate  joint  entrance  capacity  equivalent  to  the  cali- 
ber of  the  pipe  itself.  In  less  than  two  rods,  we  have 
upward  of  twenty-five  joints,  therefore  the  minimum  ca- 
pacity of  admission  at  the  joints  more  than  equals  the 
caliber  of  the  pipe  every  two  rods. 

But  as  it  is  not  at  all  likely  that  drainage  water  will  fill 
the  pipes  every  two  rods,  the  joints  might  even  be  made 
closer  than  one  ninety-sixth  of  an  inch,  and  yet  admit  all 
the  water  that  is  likely  to  find  its  way  into  the  drain.  On 
the  other  hand,  there  are  scarcely  any  tiles  manufactured 
whose  joints  will  fit  closer  than  one  half  a  line,  or  the  one 
twenty-fourth  of  an  inch ;  therefore  the  water  would  find 
its  way  into  the  pipes  in  sufficient  quantities,  even  if  the 
tiles  were  two  feet,  instead  of  one  foot  long. 


CHAPTER    VII. 


DURABILITY  OF  TELE. 

THIS  question  has  not  been  tested  fully  in  this,  and 
perhaps  in  no  other,  country.  The  length  of  time  since 
the  first  pipe  tiles  have  been  laid  down  here,  has  not  been 
long  enough  to  determine  this  question.  All  the  infor- 
mation that  can  be  gathered  from  direct  experiment,  and 
analogical  reasoning,  goes  to  «how  that  drains  of  properly 
burned  tiles,  may  be  considered  "permanent"  improve- 
ments. 

A  few  references  to  known  cases  of  durability  of  tiles, 
and  other  objects  of  similar  constitution,  may  aid  in  ar- 
riving at  a  proper  estimate  of  the  indestructibility  of  tile 
drains. 

In  "Wigtonshire,  England,  the  celebrated  Marshal,  Earl 
of  Stair,  had  constructed  some  drains  of  brick,  laid  upon 
the  clay  subsoil,  beneath  the  vegetable  mold,  one  hundred 
years  ago,  which,  when  examined  after  the  lapse  of  that 
time,  were  found  to  be  uninjured,  both  as  to  materials 
and  permeability.  They  were  laid,  in  one  instance,  by 
setting  two  courses  of  bricks  lengthwise,  about  four  inches 
apart,  and  covering  the  space  inclosed  by  laying  other 
bricks  endwise  across.  In  another  case,  the  drain  was 
made  by  laying  down  bricks  side  by  side,  as  a  foundation, 
upon  the  edges  of  which  other  brick  were  set  up  side- 
ways, and  the  whole  covered  with  flat  stones.  In  both 
cases  the  work  was  next  inclosed  with  a  packing  of 
broken  bricks,  or  "  bats,"  and  then  earth  superimposed. 

In  France,  there  are  tile  and  brick  drains  laid  down  in 
the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  still  in  good 

(367) 


368  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

repair,  and  fit  for  the  purpose  intended,  which  proves 
sufficient  durability  to  warrant  the  construction  of 
drains  (if  properly  performed),  with  the  reasonable  ex- 
pectation that  they  will  outlast  the  generation  of  those 
who  perform  the  work.  There  are,  indeed,  in  England, 
certain  legal  enactments  and  regulations  made  to  promote 
and  favor  the  construction  of  drains,  which  contemplate 
fifty  years  as  the  minimum  period  of  durability,  which 
may  be  assigned  to  this  species  of  improvement,  if  prop- 
erly made. 

The  almost  indestructible  nature  of  the  materials,  when 
properly  protected,  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact,  that 
at  Ninevah  and  Babylon,  bricks  have  been  exhumed  after 
having  lain  in  the  earth  for  more  than  thirty  centuries,  in 
a  state  of  perfect  preservation.  In  Italy  and  Greece, 
specimens  of  ancient  pottery  are  found,  the  age  of  which 
is  often  not  less  than  two  thousand  years.  Even  in  Ohio 
the  antiquary  can  point  to  the  remains  of  a  very  inferior 
kind  of  earthenware,  of  an  age  coeval  with  the  mound- 
builders,  the  cycle  of  whose  life  and  labors  is  lost  in  the 
utter  oblivion  of  forgetfulness,  while  their  fragile  potters- 
ware  remains  to  tell  us  that  "  art  is  long,  though  life  is 
short,"  and  insure  the  duration  of  the  work  of  our  hands, 
until  our  name,  and  even  nation,  may  pass  away  and  be 
forgotten. 

In  the  Great  Basin  of  Utah  Territory,  may  be  found 
the  volcano-burnt  clays  of  a  period  so  remote  in  the 
world's  geologic  history,  that  no  number  of  years  can 
satisfactorily  designate  the  durability  which  this  clay,  like 
that  of  our  tiles  in  composition,  has  already  shown;  and 
no  guess  as  to  when  the  common  causes  of  its  destruc- 
tion will  have  disintegrated  it  again,  can  assign  the  limit 
of  its  future  permanence. 

The  useful  durability  of  our  tile  drains,  depends  upon 


DURABILITY   OF   TILE.  369 

the  following  circumstances  :  1.  A  properly  constituted 
clay,  suitable  for  making  a  "  hard  tile,"  that  is,  a  semi- 
vitrified  product.  2.  The  perfect  burning  of  this  into 
properly  shaped  hard  pipes.  3.  The  laying  of  these  so 
deeply  in  the  earth,  as  to  protect  them  from  the  frost,  a 
most  powerfully  disturbing  and  destructive  agent.  4.  An 
observance  of  the  proper  rules  of  construction,  so  as  to 
avoid  curves,  up  and  down,  to  such  an  extent  as  to  favor 
the  deposition  of  sand  and  rubbish,  which  may  find  their 
way  into  the  tiles,  through  the  crevices  of  the  joints. 
Sand  will  be  arrested  at  any  depressed  point  in  the  course 
of  a  drain,  and  clog  the  conduit  so  as  to  prevent  the  flow 
of  the  water.  And,  last,  the  protection  of  the  entrance 
and  exit  extremities  of  the  pipes,  from  the  admission  of 
small  animals,  reptiles,  and  the  like,  or  the  treading  of 
cattle.  This  object  can  best  be  attained  by  the  use  of 
tile  plates,  perforated  with  fine  holes  at  each  end,  and  in- 
closing the  exit  with  a  fence,  or  walling  it  up  to  prevent 
the  cattle,  attracted  by  the  water  flowing  out,  from  tread- 
ing the  tiles  to  pieces.  (See  page  382.) 

In  regard  to  the  kind  of  pipes  which  are  most  durable, 
it  may  be  remarked  that  "  pale,"  or  "  soft "  tiles  are 
readily  softened  and  broken  by  the  action  of  the  water, 
while  tile  may  be  made  perfectly  indestructible,  if  suffi- 
ciently burned,  by  any  means  save  violence,  frost,  or 
powerful  chemical  re-agents,  against  all  of  which  means 
of  destruction  a  proper  mode  of  deposit  will  entirely  pro- 
tect it ;  and  a  drain  thus  constructed,  can  have  no  limit 
assigned  to  its  useful  durability.  In  common  phrase,  it 
will  "  last  forever." 


CHAPTER     VIII. 


LAYING      OUT      DRAINS. 

IN  laying  out  drains,  the  first  thing  to  be  determined  is 
the  amount  of  fall.  Therefore,  the  lowest  spot  on  the 
field  or  fields  to  be  drained  must  be  selected  as  the  start- 
ing point.  The  amount  of  fall  which  can  be  obtained  at 
the  lowest  point  necessarily  determines  the  depth  of  the 
drains.  After  having  determined  the  amount  of  fall,  the 
next  thing  to  be  determined  is,  whence  comes  the  water? 
Should  it  be  ascertained  that  the  water  comes  from  an  un- 
derground spring,  then  a  drain  on  the  Elkington  plan  may 
be  advisable.  If  the  water  appears  in  concavity,  on  the 
side  of  a  hill,  it  will,  perhaps,  be  well  to  examine  the  soil 
immediately  underneath,  and,  if  an  impervious  bed  under- 
lies, which  is  in  turn  succeeded  by  a  porous  bed,  it  may 
be  bored  through  at  short  distances,  drawing  the  water 
into  the  lower  and  pervious  stratum.  Should  the  water 
make  its  appearance  at  the  bottom  of  the  hill,  flowing  over 
an  impervious  stratum,  a  drain  might  be  dug  parallel  with 
the  base  of  the  hill,  which  will  remove  the  water  coming 
from  above,  and  the  spring  will  be  cut  off.  Again,  from 
the  bottom  of  this  drain  auger  holes  might  be  bored  through 
the  impervious  bed  into  the  next  below,  should  it  be  found 
pervious.  (See  illustration,  Fig.  48.) 

In  this  case  the  purpose  is  merely  to  collect  and  carry 
off  springs  that  come  to  the  surface — a  knowledge  of  the 
character  and  arrangement  of  the  earth  a  few  feet  below 
the  surface,  therefore,  is  very  desirable.  Where  the  water 
washes  its  way  to  the  surface,  in  a  layer  of  sand  or  gravel, 
lying  upon  a  layer  of  clay  or  rock,  as  is  usually  the  case, 
WO) 


LATINO  OUT  DRAINS. 


371 


the  work  is  very  simple.  A  ditch  or  drain  is  made  up  to 
the  foot  of  the  hill  or  ridge,  from  some  creek  or  other 
place,  where  sufficient  outfall  can  be 
obtained ;  it  is  then  carried  along  the 
foot  of  the  hill  or  ridge,  usually  a 
little  above  where  the  water  makes 
its  appearance.  The  drain  must  be 
low  enough  at  the  mouth  to  allow  of 
cutting  entirely  through  the  layer  of 
sand  or  gravel  that  carries  the  water, 
or  much  will  escape  under  the  drain. 
It  is  of  little  use  to  run  drains  end- 
wise into  banks,  for  the  purpose  of 
drainage,  though  it  is  sometimes  done 
successfully  when  the  object  is  only 
to  obtain  a  supply  of  stock  water. 

In  the  drainage  of  swamps,  or  small 
basin-like  depressions,  it  is  customary 
to  cut  a  main  drain  through  the  cen- 
ter, at  a  depth  sufficient  effectually 
to  drain  the  lowest  point.  In  the 
direction,  for  example,  from  4  to  the 
top  of  the  hill,  1.  Then  other  drains, 
as  at  6,  6,  6,  7,  which  empty  into  the  first  from  both  sides, 
commencing  as  near  as  may  be  to  the  edge  of  the  swamp 


FIG.  48. 


Fio.  49. 


to  catch  the  water  in  its  descent  from  the  higher  lands. 
Without  these  side  drains,  or  a  drain  encircling  such  de- 


872 


LAND    DRAWAGE. 


pressions  to  a  greater  or  lesser  extent,  they  frequently 
continue  wet  and  cold,  notwithstanding  the  existence  of  a 
good  central  drain  or  ditch. 

Where  there  is  a  basin- 
shaped  field,  as  in  the  an- 
nexed cut  (Fig.  50),  in  which 
1  represents  a  clay  soil,  2 
a  bed  of  hard-pan,  3, 4  and 
5  different  layers  of  rock 
and  shales,  6  gravel,  drains 
may  be  cut  centering  at  7, 
like  those  at  G,  G,  G,  G,  in 
Fig.  51  (next  page),  at  H, 
cut  through  the  strata  into 
a  pit  or  well;  and,  if  neces- 
sary, minor  drains  ma^.  be 
cut  leading  into  those  fig- 
ured. 

In  thorough  draining, 
sufficient  fall  having  been 
obtained  from  the  lowest 
point  of  the  land  to  be 
drained,  that  becomes  the 
proper  starting  point.  If 
the  field  has  a  regular  de- 

7  scent  toward  one  of  its  sides, 

along  that  side    the   main 
/  drain  is  carried,  and  all  the 

minor  drains  start  from  and 
run  parallel  one  to  another.  If  the  lowest  part  of  the 
land  to  be  thoroughly  drained  be  not  along  one  of  its 
sides,  the  main  drain  is  carried  along  the  lowest  place, 
whether  straight  or  otherwise,  and  the  minor  drains  start 
from  it  on  both  sides.  If  the  direction  of  the  minor  drains 


LAYING   OUT   DRAINS. 


373 


be  at  right  angles  to  the  main  drain,  it  is  better  to  curve 
the  end  of  the  minor  drain  for  a  few  feet,  where  it  enters 
the  main,  so  that  its  current  may  not  be  across  that  of  the 
main  drain,  but  partly  in  the  same  direction. 

The  fewer  main  drains  and  general  outlets  to  a  field, 
the  better.  In  the  drainage  of  hillsides,  it  has  been  a 
question  whether  the  parallel  drains  should  be  carried 
down  the  line  of  greatest  descent,  or  obliquely  to  it ;  but 
longer  experience  has  settled  the  question,  where  tiles  are 


FIG.  51. 


used,  in  favor  of  the  line  of  greatest  descent,  or,  in  other 
words,  running  the  minor  drains  straight  down  the  slope. 
One  shouid  think  that  a  question  apparently  so  self- 
evident  would  require  no  argument.  But  we  find,  in  the 
works  of  the  various  writers  on  this  subject,  that  a  great 
diversity  of  opinion  exists.  One  party  insists  that  if  a 
drain  be  cut  across  the  foot  of  the  hill,  as  at  1,  in  Fig.  52, 
it  will  completely  drain  not  only  the  stratum  3,  but 
also  that  indicated  by  2,  and  all  above  it;  and,  therefore, 
object  to  making  drains  in  the  direction  of  the  greatest 
descent.  Another  party  would  make  a  drain  to  carry  off 


374  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

the  water  from  each  stratum  which  would  crop  out  from 
the  hillside.  But,  in  order  to  drain  land  effectually,  it  is 
essentially  necessary  that  we*  have  a  correct  idea  of  the 


FIG.  52. 

sources  from  which  the  water  is  derived  that  is  to  be  car- 
ried off;  whether  the  water  is  directly  from  the  clouds,  or 
is  derived  from  fields  enjoying  a  greater  elevation,  and 
sloping  toward  it,  so  that  the  water  comes  down,  like  on  a 
roof,  from  the  other  fields ;  or  whether  it  comes  up  in 
springs,  which  find  vent  in  particular  spots,  as  indicated 
at  7,  Fig.  49.  If  the  water  is  not  derived  from  adjoining 
fields  but  from  the  clouds  direct,  a  different  mode  of  drain- 
ing is  required  than  would  be  if  the  water  came  from 
higher  fields.  When  lands  are  situated  midway  on  an  un- 
drained  slope,  from  which  the  water  spreads  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  land,  such  a  system  must  be  adopted  as  will 
not  only  drain  the  field  in  question,  but  also  to  cut  off  the 
supply  of  water  from  the  higher  fields. 

One  thing  must  be  borne  in  mind,  that  water  runs  down 
hill,  and  does  not  spread  so  as  to  run  laterally.  From  the 
fact  that  water  always  seeks  the  lowest  level  by  force  of 
gravitation,  and  drains  are  simply  lower  levels  to  conduct 
the  surplus  water  away,  in  order  to  decide  correctly  what 
direction  a  drain  should  have,  it  is  not  only  necessary  to 
have  a  correct  idea  of  the  sources  of  water,  and  the  super- 
position of  strata,  but  a  definite  idea  as  to  the  special 
office  the  drain  is  to  perform  so  as  to  carry  off  the  surplus 
water  and  drain  the  land. 


LAYING   OUT   DRAINS.  375 

As  before  stated,  drains  should  be  dug  up  and  down  the 
slope,  as  from  1  to  2,  Fig.  52.  Suppose  a  man  has  a  field 
lying  on  a  slope,  which  he  wishes  to  drain.  If  he  lay  out 
his  drains  thirty  feet  apart,  and  cut  them  up  and  down  the 
line  of  greatest  descent,  it  is  very  evident  that  the  drains 
will  then  intersect  all  the  strata,  and  bear  away  the  water 
from  all  of  them.  But,  if  he  lay  out  his  drains  the  same 
distance  apart  across  the  line  of  greatest  descent,  the  lower 
drain  will  receive  the  water  from  the  thirty  feet  next  above 
it;  the  next  drain  from  the  thirty  feet  next  above  that, 
and  so  on ;  thus  compelling  the  water  to  traverse  or  per- 
colate through  thirty  feet  of  soil  before  reaching  a  drain. 
But  in  the  other  case,  the  water  will  traverse  a  distance 
of  fifteen  feet  only  to  find  a  conduit.  The  line  of  the 
greatest  fall  is  the  only  line  in  which  the  drain  is  rela- 
tively lower  than  the  land  on  either  side  of  it.  The  water 
must  be  disposed  of  which  rests  upon  the  impervious  strata, 
whether  it  has  found  its  way  there  from  fields  or  strata 
above,  or  whether  it  is  water  from  the  clouds,  and  has  re- 
cently found  its  way  there.  But,  in  order  to  drain  a  field 
lying  on  a  slope,  with  higher  lands  above  it,  it  is,  perhaps, 
as  well  to  cut  the  upper  drain  across  the  line  of  greatest 
descent,  and  lead  it,  as  a  sub-main,  down  the  line  of  great- 
est descent,  at  the  side  or  center  of  the  field,  to  the  out- 
let. This  answers  the  purpose,  as  these  drains  signifi- 
cantly have  been  termed,  of  mere  catch-waters. 

Now,  looking  at  the  operation  of  drains  across  the 
slope,  and  supposing  that  each  drain  is  draining  the 
breadth  next  above  it,  we  will  suppose  the  drain  to  be 
running  full  of  water.  What  is  there  to  prevent  the 
water  from  passing  out  of  that  drain  in  its  progress,  at 
every  point  of  the  tiles,  and  so  saturating  the  breadth 
below  it  ?  Drain  pipes  afford  the  same  facility  for  water 
to  soak  out  at  the  lower  side,  as  to  enter  on  the  upper, 


376  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

and  there  is  the  same  law  of  gravitation  to  operate  in 
each  case.  Mr.  Denton  gives  instances  in  which  he  has 
observed,  where  drains  were  carried  across  the  slope,  in 
Warwickshire,  lines  of  moisture  at  a  regular  distance  be- 
low the  drains.  He  could  ascertain,  he  says,  the  depth 
of  the  drain  itself,  by  taking  the  difference  of  hight  be- 
ween  the  line  of  the  drain  at  the  surface,  and  that  of  the 
line  of  moisture  beneath  it. l  He  says  again  : 

"I  recently  had  an  opportunity,  in  Scotland,  of  gauging  the  quan- 
tity of  water  traveling  along  an  important  drain  carried  obliquely 
across  the  fall,  when  I  ascertained  with  certainty,  that,  although 
the  land  through  which  it  passed  was  comparatively  full  of  water, 
the  drain  actually  lost  more  than  it  gained  in  a  passage  of  several 
chains  through  it." 

So  far  as  authority  goes,  there  seems,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  some  advocates  of  the  Keythorpe  system,  of  which 
an  account  has  been  given,  to  be  very  little  difference  of 
opinion.  Mr.  Denton  says : 

"  With  respect  to  the  direction  of  drains,  I  believe  very  little  dif- 
ference of  opinion  exists.  All  the  most  successful  drainers  concur 
in  the  line  of  the  steepest  descent,  as  essential  to  effective  and  eco- 
nomical drainage.  Certain  exceptions  are  recognized  in  the  west 
of  England ;  but  I  believe  it  will  be  found,  as  practice  exends  in 
that  quarter,  that  the  exceptions  have  been  allowed  in  error." 

In  another  place,  he  says : 

"The  very  general  concurrence  in  the  adoption  of  the  line  of 
greatest  descent,  as  the  proper  course  for  the  minor  drains  in  soils 
free  from  rock,  would  almost  lead  me  to  declare  this  as  an  incontro- 
vertible principle." 

We  will  suppose  A,  B,  Fig.  53,  to  represent  a  portion 
of  the  higher  field  above.  Then  the  catch-water  or 
drain  across  the  line  of  greatest  descent  will  be  repre- 
sented by  A,  H,  E,  H,  B ;  and  when  the  nature  of  the 

1  French  on  Drainage. 


LAYING   OUT    DRAINS. 


377 


ground  will  admit,  or  should  there  be  a  depression  toward 
the  center  of  the  field,  the  catch-water  may  be  led  from 
E  to  J,  as  a  sub-main,  being  some  distance  below  J,  the 
main  drain.  The  minor  drains  then  should  run  parallel, 
or  nearly  so,  to  E,  J. 

Where  the  distance  from  E  to  J  is  considerable,  it  is  al- 
ways advisable  to  run  the  minor  drains  F,F,  F,  etc.,  into  sub- 
mains,  G,  G,  G,  G.  In  draining  a  piece  of  land,  situated 
like  that  represented  in  Fig.  52,  which  would  involve  the 
cutting  of  ditches  to  the  depth  of  eight  or  ten  feet  be- 
tween 1  and  2,  so  as  to  have  the  drains  of  a  proper  depth  at 
3,  it  will  be  found  advisable  to  lead  the  minor  drains  into  a 
sub-main  from  4  to  3,  and  then  commence  a  new  series  of 
drains  between  2  and  1,  and  lead  them  into  another  sub- 
main  at  1. 

Some  good  drainers  advise,  that  when  works  stop  on  a 
33 


378  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

slope,  a  drain  called  a  header  should  connect  the  tops  of 
the  minor  drains,  thus  preventing  the  water  lying  between 
the  upper  sub-main,  A,  E,  B,  of  Fig.  53,  and  the  minor 
drains  F,  F,  F,  F,  etc.,  from  passing  down  into  the  ground 
between  the  minor  drains,  and  also  relieving  the  minor 
drains  from  the  pressure  of  the  water  above  them,  and  by 
which  they  will  the  more  easily  become  clogged  than  when 
protected.  However,  when  the  sub-main  is  dug  above  the 
minor  drains,  as  in  the  figure,  the  necessity  of  headers  is 
very  slight,  except  when  the  quantity  and  pressure  of 
water  is  sufficient  to  cause  it  to  flow  over  the  sub-main. 

Even  the  sub-main  will  not  drain  the  slope  above  it  en- 
tirely. Capillary  attraction,  and  the  resistance  offered  to 
the  descent  of  the  water  will  prevent  the  sub-main  from 
bringing  about  a  complete  drainage.  The  cuttings  of  our 
railways  and  high  banks  of  rivers  show  that  no  depth  of 
ditch  can  remove  the  moisture  from  a  very  considerable 
distance.  This  part  of  the  subject  has  been  more  fully 
discussed  in  the  Chapter  on  Distance  of  Drains. 

The  sub-main  draining  the  highest  portion  of  the  slope 
should  be  independent  of  all  minor  drains  and  branches, 
for  being  directly  in  contact  with  the  head  of  water  from 
above,  it  will  necessarily  carry  down  more  mud  and  silt, 
and  have  a  tendency,  if  allowed,  to  choke  up  the  minor 
drains. 

It  is  sometimes  found  advantageous  to  construct  a  tank, 
sink,  or  silt-basin,  in  both  surface  and  covered  drains. 
This  is  more  especially  the  case  where  an  open  enters  into 
a  covered  drain.  From  this  sink  the  water  flows  off  com- 
paratively clear.  This  arrangement  will  not  be  found  to 
answer  its  purpose,  when  the  amount  of  water  flowing 
through  the  drains  is  very  great,  for  then  the  motion  of 
the  stream  passing  through  the  tank  will  prevent  the  rnud 
from  depositing.  It  will  also  be  necessary  to  have  the 


LAYING   OUT   DRAINS.  379 

tank  frequently  cleaned  from  its  deposit,  for  when  filled 
with  mud  it  is  only  an  obstruction. 

We  have  now  described  the  proper  method  of  cutting 
off  the  supply  of  water  from  an  underground  spring,  as 
well  as  draining  the  underground  water  from  an  adjoin- 
ing slope,  and  it  yet  remains  to  say  a  few  words  upon 
conveying  away  the  amount  discharged  by  the  clouds. 
This  is  a  subject  upon  which  much  has  been  written,  and 
is  even  yet  an  exceedingly  controverted  point.  It  is,  in 
fact,  the  egg  of  Columbus  for  drainers,  as  it  involves  not 
only  a  calculation  of  the  distance  between  drains,  the 
depth  of  drains,  fall,  and  size  of  tile,  but  also  evapora- 
tion and  filtration.  All  of  these  points  have  been  dis- 
cussed in  the  preceding  pages.  We  may  assume  that  the 
meteorological  precipitations  for  Ohio,  will  average  43 
inches  per  annum  (see  page  77).  The  precipitations  then 
will  be  10-34  inches  during  the  spring  months;  13-40 
during  the  summer ;  9-60  during  autumn,  and  9-66  during 
winter.  Assuming,  then,  in  the  absence  of  positive  ex- 
periments, that  evaporation  is  the  same,  pro  rata,  as  in 
Continental  European  countries,  it  will  amount  to  15 
inches  per  annum  in  Ohio,  leaving  28  inches  to  be  fil- 
trated, and  to  flow  off  the  surface.  Of  this,  about  one 
half,  or  14  inches,  finds  its  way  into  the  soil,  and  the  re- 
mainder into  brooks,  creeks,  etc.  Now,  if  these  assump- 
tions are  correct,  then  underdrained  soils  inaugurate  a 
vast  change  in  these  proportions ;  because  where  obser- 
vations have  been  correctly  registered,  it  was  found  that 
eleven  twentieths  of  the  summer  precipitations  were  dis- 
charged by  the  drains,  and  often  more  than  three  fifths 
of  the  autumn  and  spring  precipitations,  while  the  dis- 
charges from  the  drains  averaged  more  than  three  fourths 
of  the  winter  precipitations.  Hence,  the  assumption, 
that  one  third  of  the  precipitations  are  absorbed  by  filtra- 


380  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

tion,  is  no  criterion  for  the  drainer.  He  must  assume  that 
at  least  one  half  of  the  meteorological  precipitations  are 
to  be  carried  off  by  the  drains.  Now,  the  summer  and 
autumn  precipitations  must  not  be  taken  as  a  basis,  upon 
which  to  predicate  either  the  distance  between  the  drains 
or  the  capacity  of  the  tiles,  because  the  soil  is  then  in  a 
condition  to  dispose  of  the  precipitation  without  any  ob- 
struction. But  the  winter  and  spring  precipitations  will 
constitute  a  more  reliable  basis.  Freezing  during  the 
winter  months,  arrests  the  operation  of  the  drains,  and 
when  the  genial  weather  in  spring  time  sets  in,  the  water 
of  the  two  seasons  have  both  to  be  drained  at  once.  Now, 
if  we  take  the  amount  of  the  precipitation  of  the  three 
winter  months,  and  add  to  it  that  of  two  spring  months, 
this  will  give  us  the  largest  mass  of  water  to  be  drained 
in  the  shortest  period  of  time,  so  as  to  relieve  the  grow- 
ing crops  from  sustaining  any  injury.  The  period  in 
which  this  water  should  be  drained  away,  should  never 
exceed  fourteen  days. 

Having  given  tables  in  the  preceding  pages,  of  fall, 
width  between  drains,  and  capacity  of  tiles,  each  one 
may  make  his  own  calculations  for  the  piece  of  ground 
intended  to  be  drained. 


CHAPTER    IX. 


MAIN  DRAINS. 

THE  main  drain  should  be  located  on  the  lowest  por- 
tion of  the  farm.  It  should  be  an  open  ditch,  at  least 
four  feet  deep,  but  when  circumstances  will  permit,  six 
feet.  The  side  should  have  a  slope  of  a  foot  and  a  half 
to  each  foot  of  depth.  If  then  the  drain  be  four  feet 
deep,  and  eighteen  inches  wide  at  the  bottom,  the  width 
at  the  top  will  be  thirteen  and  a  half  feet.  The  ground 
excavated,  if  thrown  up  on  the  sides,  will  form  a  capital 
fence.  In  fact,  the  ha-ha  fences  of  England  are  built  in 
this  manner,  for  the  reason  that  they  occupy  less  space, 
and  are  equally  as  preventive  as  hedges  are  against  the 
irruptions  of  unruly  cattle.  The  main  should  invariably 
be  made  before  the  minor  drains,  for  very  obvious  rea- 
sons, prominent  among  which  is  the  determination  of  the 
amount  of  fall  and  depth  of  the  minor  drains.  The 
main  drain  should  invariably  be  a  foot  or  eighteen  inches 
lower  than  the  outlet  of  the  minor  drains,  if  they  dis- 
charge immediately  into  the  main  drain ;  but  where  sub- 
main  drains  are  employed,  the  main  should  be  at  least 
eight  inches  below  the  outlets  of  the  sub-mains,  while  the 
sub-mains  should  be  at  least  6  inches  lower  than  the  minor 
drains.  Of  course  where  these  proportions  are  not  prac- 
ticable, less  fall  between  the  minor  drains  and  sub-mains, 
and  between  the  sub-mains  and  mains,  must  be  admissible. 
But  where  these  proportions  can  be  attained,  greater  se- 
curity will  be  given  to  the  drains,  against  disturbances  by 
frogs,  lizards,  or  other  amphibious  animals.  Where  a 
sub-main  or  minor  drains  empty  into  the  main  drain,  the 
(381) 


382  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

exit  pipe  should  bo  secured  by  a  system  of  masonry,  simi- 

lar  to  that  represented 
in  Fig.  54.  Thiseffec- 

tually  prevents  the  en- 

„  n 

trance  of  frogs,  craw- 
fish and  other  "  var- 
mints." 

We  have  mentioned 
minor  drains  emptying 

FIG.  54.  ,       . 

into  the  mam  drain,  or 

open  ditch,  thus  making  a  separate  outlet  for  each 
minor  drain.  We  do  not  wish  to  be  understood  as  re- 
commending this  method,  by  any  means,  because  these 
outlets  are  not  only  liable  to  be  frozen  up  in  winter 
time,  but  are  exposed  to  cattle  and  to  mischievous  boys, 
and  to  become  obstructed  by  deposits  which  are  discharged 
by  the  drains  themselves.  A  much  better  plan  is  to  have 
the  minor  drains  empty  into  a  sub-main,  as  G  G,  emptying 
into  J,  in  the  lower  portion  of  Fig.  53.  The  smaller  the 
number  of  outlets,  in  any  system  of  draining,  the  better. 

Some  may  object  to  our  plan  of  one  outlet,  on  the 
ground  that,  should  any  obstruction  occur  in  the  minor 
drains,  it  will  be  more  difficult  of  inspection.  This  is  true 
in  a  certain  sense ;  but  we  think  that  surface  indications 
will  show  when  and  where  any  serious  obstruction  takes 
place,  with  as  much  certainty  as  the  open  end  of  the  drain. 
And  surely,  the  additional  security  of  having  a  few  open- 
ings, well  protected,  is  a  much  greater  advantage  than  a 
drain  left  open  for  the  purpose  of  investigation.  How- 
ever, to  obviate  any  difficulty  which  might  arise  from 
either  of  the  above  methods,  some  good  drainers  recom- 
mend that  "peep-holes"  should  be  placed  at  regular  dis- 
tances, by  which,  should  any  derangement  occur,  its 
locality  and  extent  could  be  easily  determined.  The  con- 


MAIN   DRAINS. 


383 


struction  of  these  "peep-holes"  may  be  varied  to  suit 
the  taste  or  means  of  the  proprietor.  A  very  easy  method 
of  making  them  will  be  to  sink  a  stout  barrel  or  hogshead 
over  the  drain.  This,  however,  will  be  but  a  temporary 
concern.  Another  form,  more  in  place  with  the  whole 
system,  may  be  constructed  after  the  annexed  cut,  Fig. 
55,  either  of  earthenware  or  cast  iron.  It  should  be  well 


FIG.  55. 


protected  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  against  cattle,  etc., 
by  a  strong  cover,  as  represented.  This  arrangement  will 
furnish  ample  means  for  investigating  drains,  convincing 
the  incredulous,  and  also,  of  making  observations  on  the 
working  of  the  system  in  different  portions  of  the  work. 

We  have  before  spoken  of  sinks  or  silt-basins.     These 
should  not  be  confounded  with  "  peep-holes."     The  ac- 


384 


LAND    DRAINAGE. 


companying  cut  gives  a  very  good  idea  of  their  construc- 
tion. They  should  be  built  of  solid  masonry,  large  enough 
to  admit  of  being  cleaned  out  without  inconvenience.  A 
relief-pipe,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  will  not  always  be  ne- 


FIG.   56. 


cessary,  and  may  give  rise  to  some  inconvenience.     The 
chain,  which  is  attached  to  the  flap  covering  the  incoming 

drain,  is  operated  from  above. 
The  object  of  this  flap  or  valve 
is  to  prevent  the  water  from 
flowing  through  the  drain  for 
any  desirable  length  of  time. 
The  pent-up  water,  when  re- 
leased, rushes  down  with  force, 
sufficient  to  carry  down  the  sand 
and  other  impediments  from  the 
tiles  above,  also  effecting  a  partial  cleansing  of  the  basin 


MAIN   DRAINS. 


385 


itself.     The  lid.  Fig.  57,  should  be  made  of  cast  iron,  and 
firmly  fixed,  to  prevent  displacement  and  accidents. 


FIG.  58. 

Large  Outlet. — No  portion  of  the  whole  drain  requires 
to  be  more  substantially  constructed  than  the  large  outlet; 
and  none  is  more  likely  to  be  neglected.  The  drains  we 
expect  to  last  a  lifetime,  and  certainly  the  outlet,  which 
is  the  foundation  and  abutment  of  the  whole,  should  be 
built  with  the  same  expectation.  We  have  before  spoken 
of  the  outlets  of  the  minor  drains,  where  they  are  emp- 
tied into  the  open  or  main  ditch.  We  have  now  to  speak 
of  a  preferable  plan,  namely,  where  the  minor  drains  are 
united,  forming  a  sub-main,  and  of  the  outlet  which  this 
sub-main  should  have.  On  this  subject  Mr.  Denton  says  : 

"Too  many  outlets  are  objectionable,  on  account  of  the  labor  of 

their  maintenance;  too  few  are  objectionable,  because  they  can  only 

exist  where  there  are  mains  of  excessive  length.     A  limit  of  twenty 

acres  to  an  outlet,  resulting  in  an  average  of,  perhaps,  fourteen 

34 


386  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

acres,  will  appear,  by  the  practices  of  the  best  drainers,  to  be  about 
the  proper  thing.  If  a  shilling  an  acre  is  reserved  for  fixing  the 
outlets,  which  should  be  iron  pipes,  ivith  swing  gratings,  in  masonry, 
very  substantial  work  may  be  done." 

We  present,  in  Fig.  58,  preceding  page,  a  section  of 
such  outlet  as  has  been  found  to  answer  its  purpose  effec- 
tually. It  is  composed  of  solid  masonry,  strongly  braced. 
The  exit  pipe  is  of  cast  iron,  projecting  a  few  inches  from 
the  work.  The  exit  should  be  some  inches,  or  even  a 
foot  and  a  half,  if  that  distance  can  be  had,  from  the  bot- 
tom of  the  main  drain,  both  that  the  water  may  flow  off 
readily,  and  that  it  may  be  protected  from  any  backwaters 
ascending  the  main  drain  from  the  stream  or  pond  in 
which  it  flows.  It  would  be  still  better,  if  a  fall  could  be 
given  to  the  main  drain  before  discharging  its  water  into  the 
creek  or  pond,  thus  preventing  any  backwater  whatever. 


CHAPTER   X. 


DRAINING  TOOLS,  INSTRUMENTS,  ETC. 

THE  instruments  used  in  the  construction  of  drains  are 
simple  and  few  in  number.  They  consist,  mainly,  of 
shovels,  such  as  are  used  for  ordinary  purposes,  spades, 
scoops,  and  picks.  In  addition  to  these,  a  pipe-layer  will 
be  necessary,  for  narrow  drains,  and  a  drain  gauge  and 
level  are  very  convenient,  if  not  necessary. 

Some  of  these  tools  are  not  made  in  this  country,  at 
present;  they  must  either  be  imported,  or  some  substi- 
tute obtained  of  an  ingenious  blacksmith. 


FIG.  59 


Fio. 60. 


Fio  61. 


Fio.  62. 


Shovels. — Ordinary  shovels  will  be  very  useful  in  re- 
moving the  earth,  when  the  ditch  is  not  less  than  one  foot 
in  width.  They  should  be  made  of  the  best  material  and 

(387) 


388 


LAND   DRAINAGE. 


strongly  braced  by  two  slips  of  iron,  extending  some  dis- 
tance up  the  handle  from  the  socket.  The  long-handled, 
pointed,  scoop  shovel,  in  common  use  on  our  railroads, 
will  be  found  very  useful  in  removing  light  soil  or  gravel, 
after  being  turned  up  with  the  pick. 

Spades.  —  Three  spades  are  all  that  are  necessary. 
These  should  be  of  different  sizes,  gradually  diminishing 
in  width,  to  suit  different  depths.  When  the  ground  con- 
tains stones,  or  other  impediments,  they  should  be  made 
perfectly  flat,  as  in  Figs.  59,  60,  and  61  (preceding  page). 
When  the  soil  is  free  from  all  impediments,  a  curved  form, 
represented  in  Fig.  63,  will  be  found  advantageous. 

Morton,  in  the  Cyclopaedia  of  Agriculture,  gives  the 
spades,  Figs.  61,  62,  and  63,  as  those  most  in  general  use, 
for  digging  the  last,  or  lowest  portions  of  the  drain. 


FIG.  03. 


FIG.  64 


PIG.  65. 


FIG.  66, 


Fig.  64 represents  abroad  and  curved  shovel,  somewhat 
triangular  in  shape,  with  a  bent  handle.  This  is  used  for 
removing  dirt  from  large  drains. 


DRAINING   TOOLS,   INSTRUMENTS,   ETC.  389 

Scoops. — For  removing  the  soil  from  the  bottom,  and 
shaping  out  the  ditch  for  the  reception  of  the  tile,  scoops 
are  necessary.  For  small  and  narrow  ditches,  differ- 
ent forms  are  used,  as  shown  in  Figs.  67  and  70.  These 
are  to  be  used  standing  on  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
The  instrument  shown  in  Fig.  70,  is  especially  adapted  to 
fitting  the  bottom  for  round  tiles  or  pipes. 


Fio.  67.  Fio.  68.  FIG.  69.  Fio.  70. 

When  the  ditches  are  made  with  flat  bottoms,  such  a 
tool  as  represented  by  Fig.  68  is  used  for  scooping  it  out. 
Where  the  bottom  is  soft,  or  the  crumbs  mixed  with  water, 


390 


LAND   DRAINAGE. 


a  similar  tool,  with  the  sides  turned  up,  as  represented  by 
Fig.  69,  is  used  to  clean  out  the  ditch. 

Picks. — Where  the  subsoil  is  stony,  or  hard-pan,  a  pick 
will  be  necessary  to  loosen  it.  The  dirt  is  then  removed 
with  the  long  scoop  shovel.  The  common  pick  (Figs.  71 


FIG.  71. 


FIG.  72. 


Fio.  73. 


and  72)  is  all  that  is  necessary  for  this  purpose,  though, 
in  some  cases,  a  foot  pick  (Fig.  73)  may  be  advantageously 
used. 

Pickaxes  may  be  made  either  heavy  or  light,  as  suits 
the  workman.  They  should  be  strongly  made,  and  the 
usual  form,  with  a  pick  at  one  end  and  chisel  at  the  other, 
is  best. 

Pipe  layer  is  a  convenient  tool ;  the  handle  is  long  and 
light,  like  that  of  a  rake ;  from  the  end  of  this  passes  a 
stout  piece  of  iron  wire  or  rod,  a  foot  in  length,  and  hav- 
ing a  direction  almost  at  right  angles  with  the  handle. 
This  is  for  the  purpose  of  laying  the  tiles  or  pipes  into 
the  drain ;  and,  if  the  drains  are  made  as  narrow  as  they 
ought  to  be,  it  will  then  b.e  not  only  convenient  but  highly 


DRAINING    TOOLS,   INSTRUMENTS,   ETC.  391 

useful.     It  is  better  understood  by  reference  to  the  cut 
(Fig.  74)  than  from  description. 


Fio.  74— PIPK  LATIB.  Fia.  75  Fia.  76. 

Drain  gauge. — This  necessary  though  simple  instru- 
ment is  shown  in  Figs.  75  and  76.  It  should  be  strongly 
made,  not  liable  to  be  altered,  either  by  accident  or  de- 
sign on  the  part  of  the  workman.  It  may  be  constructed 
according  to  either  figure,  and  shows  both  the  depth  of  the 
drain  and  its  width  at  top  and  bottom.  If  stones  are  used, 
it  may  be  made  to  show  the  depth  of  filling. 

A  water  level  is  the  first  instrument  of  which  one  who 


392  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

has  lands  to  drain  should  possess  himself.  This  need  not 
be  an  expensive  article,  for  one  of  very  simple  construc- 
tion will  answer  every  purpose.  Take  a  piece  of  lead 
pipe,  two  or  three  feet  in  length,  and  about  half  an  inch 
in  bore,  bend  up  an  inch  or  two  at  each  end  to  a  right 
angle  ;  then  take  a  small  glass  phial  that  will  slip  into  the 
tube,  break  off  the  bottom,  which  may  easily  be  done  by 
making  a  crease  round  on  the  corner  of  a  grindstone;  then 
secure  the  phial  in  the  tube  with  sealing  wax ;  both  ends 
are  to  be  fixed  alike.  The  level  should  be  fastened  to  a 
small  piece  of  wood,  to  give  it  stiifness  and  security.  A 
nail,  or  screw,  or  peg,  is  put  through  the  middle  of  the 
wood,  just  on  one  side  of  the  lead  pipe,  to  serve  as  a  pivot 
in  directing  the  instrument.  For  a  tripod,  three  notches 
may  be  made  in  a  little  block  of  wood,  and  each  leg  se- 
cured by  a  nail,  so  as  to  make  a  movable  joint;  then  bore 
a  hole  in  the  top  of  the  block,  to  receive  the  pivot  of  the 
level.  When  about  to  be  used,  the  level  is  filled  with 
colored  water,  about  half  way  up  both  phials,  which  are 
then  corked,  so  that  it  may  be  carried  about.  When  the 
level  is  put  on  the  tripod,  and  as  near  right  as  can  be 
guessed,  the  corks  are  removed,  and  the  fluid  in  the  phials 
stands  at  a  water  level.  There  is  then  no  difficulty  in 
obtaining  accurate  levels  in  any  direction.  Instead  of  the 
lead  pipe,  a  glass  tube  may  be  substituted,  and  the  ends 
bent  up,  after  heating  in  a  spirit  lamp.  Descriptions  and 
plates  of  this  water  level  are  given  in  "  Thomas  on  Farm 
Implements"  "Munris  Practical  Drainer"  and  in  the 
"Register  of  Rural  Affairs"  It  is  much  better  to  use  a 
level  in  laying  out  all  draining  work  than  to  depend  on 
the  best  estimates  otherwise  obtained.  It  is  not  only  de- 
sirable to  know  the  lowest  points  of  the  field  to  be  drain- 
ed, and  the  highest,  but  also  to  know  the  exact  difference 
in  inches,  in  order  to  have  the  fall  regular  and  uniform. 


DRAINING    TOOLS,   INSTRUMENTS,  ETC.  393 

A  span  level  is  the  best  instrument  for  determining  the 
exact  fall  in  a  drain  that  is  being  dug  when  no  water  is 
present.  Three  narrow  strips  of  board  are  required,  each 
about  six  feet  in  length; 
these  are  nailed  together  in 
the  form  of  the  letter  A,  the 
span  or  stretch  being  ex- 
actly half  a  rod.  (See  Fig. 
77).  From  a  nail  or  pin  at 
the  top  a  plummet  is  sus- 
pended. It  is  then  placed,  for  the  purpose  of  marking, 
upon  a  floor  or  piece  of  timber,  which  is  perfectly  level, 
and  the  place  where  the  plumb  line,  touches  the  cross  bar 
marked ;  one  foot  is  then  raised  one  fourth  of  an  inch, 
and  the  place  where  the  line  crosses  the  bar  again  marked, 
and  will  show  a  rise  or  fall  one  half  inch  to  the  rod. 
The  foot  is  then  raised  to  half  an  inch  and  the  bar 
marked,  indicating  one  inch  to  the  rod.  These  mark- 
ings can  be  made  to  any  extent  desired,  and  the  in- 
strument, by  dropping  it  into  the  drain  occasionally,  will 
show  that  the  drain  is  dug  with  uniform  fall,  and  precisely 
that  determined  on  at  the  outset. 

We  have  not  aimed  at  prescribing  a  set  of  tools  which 
are  absolutely  necessary,  being  too  well  acquainted  with 
the  genius  of  the  western  people,  and  knowing  too  well 
that  they  will  make  almost  any  kind  of  tool  answer  the 
purpose ;  but  we  deemed  it  necessary  to  give  a  general 
description  of  the  tools  employed  by  expert  drainers. 


CHAPTER    XI. 


DIGGING    UNDER  DRAINS. 

AFTER  proper  levels  have  been  taken,  and  the  rate  of  fall 
ascertained,  the  digging  may  commence,  the  workman 
being  kept  straight  by  a  line,  as  represented  in  Fig.  78. 


FIG.  78.* 

The  dotted  line  represents  the  bottom  of  the  drain ;  the 
dotted  lines  forming  a  triangle,  or  wedge-shape,  represents 
a  section  of  the  ditch,  as  seen  from  the  body  of  the  ditch. 
Every  three  or  four  rods,  two  narrow  boards,  having  a  slit 
sawed  in  from  the  upper  end,  should  be  placed  on  a  line 
with  the  center  of  the  ditch.  A  line  is  then  placed  in  the 
slit  of  the  board,  at  the  end  of  the  ditch,  and  continued 
to  the  other  board,  supported  by  frames  or  braces  resem- 
bling on  iron  square — these  latter  are  placed  at  the  side 
of  the  ditch,  and  the  line  suspended  over  the  projecting 
arm,  to  keep  it  taut,  or  to  prevent  it  from  "  sagging"  If 
the  line  is  properly  placed  it  will  always  enable  the  work- 
man to  ascertain  whether  the  drain  is  of  the  proper  depth, 
because  the  distance  from  the  line  to  the  bottom  of  the 

#This  cut  is  from  French's  work — but  the  plan  has  been  adopted  by  ditchers  in  Ohio 
during  the  past  twenty-five  years. 
(394) 


DIGGING    UNDERDRAINS. 


395 


drain  must  always  be  precisely  the  same,  whether  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  is  level  or  full  of  undulations. 

Without  some  care,  a  ditch  will  not  be  dug  straight  even 
where  a  line  is  used,  for  in  passing  over  swells  or  eleva- 
tions, if  the  surface  of  the  top  is  not  removed  enough 
wider  to  allow  for  the  regular  slope  of  the  sides,  the  bot- 
tom will  not  be  straight,  or  the  sides  will  be  too  perdicu- 
lar.  To  correct  this  latter  difficulty,  a  draining  gauge, 
Fig.  79  or  80,  is  employed.  These  gauges  consist  of  an 
upright  wooden  strip,  say,  four 
feet  in  length,  with  a  foot  at  the 
bottom,  the  precise  width  of  the 
tile  to  be  laid ;  and  near  the  top  a 
==I  cross  piece,  the  length  of  which  is 
the  exact  width  of  the  drain. 
Where  great  precision  in  the  slope 
of  the  sides  is  required  a  central 
cross  piece,  as  in  Fig.  79,  having 
for  its  length  the  exact  width  of 
the  drain  at  that  point,  or  rather 
a  mean  between  the  foot  piece  and 
upper  cross  piece. 

The  first  spit,  or  spade  depth 
FIG.  79.  no.  so.  of  turf,  or  surface  soil,  is  usually 
removed  by  a  common  spade ;  a  stronger  one  being  re- 
quired than  would  be  chosen  for  gardening  purposes.  The 
width  of  the  drain,  on  the  top,  must  always  depend  on 
the  depth  required  ;  skillful  drainers  dig  a  much  narrower 
drain  than  the  unskilled.  The  narrowness  of  the  drain 
is  an  advantage,  there  being  less  earth  to  throw  out,  and 
of  course  less  to  return.  For  a  depth  of  three  feet,  one 
foot  on  top  is  abundantly  wide,  and  many  drains  would 
not  require  so  much.  The  crumbs  are  all  shoveled  out 
with  a  common  shovel.  It  is  usual,  at  this  stage  of  the 


396  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

work,  to  bring  the  bottom  of  the  drain  to  its  true  level, 
at  least  so  far  as  to  correct  any  noticeable  unevenness  of 
the  surface.  The  span  level  before  described  must  be  used 
occasionally,  unless  water  be  present.  Sometimes  a  turf 
of  only  a  few  inches  is  taken  off  before  the  first  full  spit 
is  dug. 

The  second  spit  is  dug  with  the  narrower  spade  or  pro-per 
draining  tool,  and  the  crumbs  are  removed  by  a  draw 
scoop ;  or  a  long  handled  shovel,  with  the  sides  turned  up, 
will  answer  very  well.  The  removal  af  the  second  spit 
brings  the  drain  to  two  feet  in  depth,  and  seven  inches  in 
width  on  the  bottom,  unless  greater  width  and  depth  are 
required.  The  third  and  last  spit  of  a  three  feet  drain  is 
cut  with  the  same  narrow  spade  as  the  second,  or  one  still 
narrower.  The  bottom  is  made  of  the  exact  width  of  the 
tiles  to  be  put  in,  and  when  these  are  less  than  four  inches 
across  outside,  the  tool  must  be  narrower  ;  or  if  it  be  re- 
quired to  cut  a  channel  three  inches  wide  on  the  bottom, 
with  a  tool  four  inches  in  width,  this  is  readily  done,  where 
the  tool  is  a  little  curved,  by  holding  it  obliquely,  instead 
of  transversely  across  the  drain.  The  crumbs  are  re- 
moved, and  the  bottom  fitted  for  the  tiles  with  the  draw 
scoop.  The  drainer  never  sets  his  foot  on  the  bottom  of 
a  narrow  drain ;  in  fact,  he  could  not  get  it  there.  What- 
ever the  size  of  the  tile  used,  that  must  be  the  width  of 
the  bottom  of  the  drain ;  there  should  be  just  room  to  ad- 
mit the  tile,  but  not  the  least  possibility  of  its  getting  out 
of  place. 

New  beginners  in  digging  drains,  as  a  general  thing, 
remove  double  the  quantity  of  earth  necessary  to  make 
the  drain.  This  is  an  error,  however,  which  generally 
corrects  itself  by  practice.  Some  drainers  prefer  making 
the  ditch,  say  18  inches  wide  at  the  top,  and  give  the 
sides  c,  Fig.  81,  a  gentle  slope,  until  a  depth  of  two  feet 


DIGGING   UNDERDRAINS. 


397 


is  attained — leaving  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  b,  5,  fourteen 
or  fifteen  inches  wide.  This  part  of  the  ditch  may  be 
made  with  the  ordinary  spade,  Figs.  59,  or  60.  Then 
the  narrow  spade,  Figs.  61,  62 
or  65,  is  used  to  excavate  the  re- 
maining foot  of  earth,  a;  this 
leaves  the  bottom,  2,  3,  or  4 
inches  wide — according  to  the 
tool  used — and  just  the  size  for 
the  tile.  When  this  style  of 
ditching  is  adopted,  the  tools, 
Figs.  67  and  70  are  used  to  clear 
the  bottom  of  all  pieces  of  ground 
which  may  have  fallen  in,  as  well 
as  to  remove  any  inequalities  in 
the  bottom.  The  tile  is  then 
taken  up  with  the  short  arm  of 
the  pipe  layer,  Fig.  74,  laid  in 
the  bottom  of  the  ditch  and  properly  adjusted. 

Alderman  Mechi,  says : 

"  On  Digging  a  Drain. — Before  I  proceed  to  describe  my  mode 
of  digging,  I  will  remark  that  a  very  great  mistake  is  made  by  most 
drainers  in  removing  more  earth  than  is  necessary.  My  men,  for  a 
5-feet  drain,  only  open  the  surface  18  inches  wide,  and  at  4  feet  they 
can  do  it  in  12  to  14  inches;  at  6  feet  deep  they  allow  themselves 
22  inches ;  this  is  when  the  land  is  tolerably  dry ;  when  very  wet 
and  adhesive,  they  sometimes  allow  themselves  an  inch  or  two  more, 
to  prevent  the  earth  touching  their  clothes.  As  they  are  paid  by 
the  piece,  they  are  very  particular  not  to  remove  a  bit  more  earth 
than  is  absolutely  necessary.  In  stony  and  hard  soils,  requiring  the 
frequent  use  of  the  pickaxe,  the  workmen  require  rather  a  wider 
opening;  but  even  so  deep  as  6  feet  deep,  it  is  seldom  necessary  to 
open  2  feet  wide.  It  must  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  pipes 
can  not  be  placed  by  the  hand  in  such  narrow  drains,  the  bottom  not 
being  2  inches  wide.  The  drainers  have  a  stick  with  a  piece  of  iron 
like  a  long  cock's  spur,  on  which  they  place  the  pipe,  and  standinp 


FIG.  79. 


398  LAND  DRAINAGE. 

astride  on  the  top  of  the  opening,  place  the  pipes  abutting  against 
each  other  in  a  continuous  line,  giving  them  a  tap  or  two  to  set 
them  firm  in  their  places.  Great  care  is  required  to  scoop  out  all 
the  crumbs,  leaving  the  bottom  of  the  drain  smooth,  with  a  sufficient 
fall.  The  bottom  of  the  drain  should  not  be  wider,  if  possible,  than 
the  outside  diameter  of  the  pipe ;  it  is  thus  kept  firmly  in  its  place. 
A  common  carpenter's  level  answers  very  well ;  but  the  workmen 
are  generally  sure  to  give  fall  enough  to  spare  their  labor  in  going 
too  deep.  We  never  plow  out  for  the  laborers.  They  streteh  a  gar- 
den line,  so  as  to  open  their  work  straight  and  true.  The  ordinary 
spades  are  not  at  all  calculated  or  proper  for  draining  in  tenacious 
soils.  We  use  the  patent  grafting  tools,  made  by  Mr.  Lyndon,  of 
Birmingham ;  they  are  thin,  well  plated  with  steel,  and  ring  like  a 
bell,  and  will  go  easily  into  hard  clays,  when  the  common  spades 
could  not  be  used  at  all.  They  may  he  had  of  Mr.  Lyndon  direct, 
or  ordered  through  the  iron-mongers.  The  middle  spits  are  removed 
by  a  narrow  three  quarter  spade,  with  a  projecting  iron  for  the  foot; 
and  the  lowest  spit  is  taken  out  by  a  long  14-inch  dagger-like  spade, 
•with  two  cutting  edges,  a  sharp  point,  and  an  iron  rest  for  the  foot; 
this  is  worked  edgewise  first,  and  then  removes  a  considerable  thin, 
but  broad  deep  mass.  The  scoop  follows  for  the  crumbs.  All  these 
tools  may  be  had  of  Mr.  Lyndon." 

As  digging  ditches  for  drains  is  frequently  done  by 
contract,  "by  the  job ,"  or  by  the  rod,  we  have  deemed  it 
proper  to  insert  the  following  table,  giving  the  number  of 
cubic  yards  of  earth  to  be  removed  in  digging  ditches  : 


DIGGING    UNDERDRAINS. 

CUBIC  YARDS  OF  DIGGING  IN  DRAINS. 
Depth  2  feet  6  inches. 


399 


I 

Width 
9 
inches. 

Width 
10 
inches. 

Width 
11 
inches. 

Width 
Ifoot. 

Width 
Ifoot 
6  inches. 

Width 
2  feet. 

Width  • 
2  feet 
6  inches. 

Width 
3  feet. 

Yards. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

% 

3 

3 

3 

4 

6 

7 

9 

11 

I 

6 

6 

7 

7 

11 

15 

19 

22 

2 

11 

12 

14 

15 

22 

1   3 

1  10 

1  18 

3 

17 

19 

21 

22 

1   7 

1  18 

2   2 

2  13 

4 

22 

25 

1 

1   3 

1  18 

2   6 

2  21 

3   9 

5 

1 

1   4 

1   7 

1  10 

2   2 

2  21 

3  13 

4   4 

6 

7 

1  10 

1  14 

1  18 

2  13 

3   9 

4   4 

6 

7 

12 

1  17 

1  21 

1  25 

2  25 

3  24 

4  23 

5  22 

8 

18 

1  23 

2   1 

2   6 

3   9 

4  12 

5  15 

6  18 

9 

24 

2   2 

2   8 

2  13 

3  20 

5 

6   7 

7  13 

10 

2   2 

2   8 

2  15 

2  21 

4   4 

5  15 

6  25 

8   9 

11 

2   8 

2  15 

2  22 

3   1 

4  16 

6   3 

7  17 

9   4 

12 

2  13 

2  21 

3   1 

3   9 

5 

6  18 

8   9 

10 

13 

2  19 

3 

3   8 

3  16 

5  11 

7   6 

9   1 

10  22 

14 

2  25 

3   6 

3  15 

3  24 

5  22 

7  21 

9  19 

11  18 

15 

3   3 

3  13 

3  22 

4   4 

6   7 

8   9 

10  11 

12  13 

25 

5   6 

5  21 

6  10 

6  25 

10  11 

13  24 

17  10 

20  22 

40 

8   9 

9   7 

10   5 

11   3 

16  18 

22   6 

27  21 

33   9 

65 

11  12 

12  20 

14 

15   7 

22  25 

30  15 

38   5 

45  22 

70 

14  16 

16   5 

17  22 

19  12 

29   4 

38  24 

48  16 

58   9 

85 

17  19 

19  18 

21  17 

23  16 

35  11 

47   6 

59   1 

70  22 

100 

20  22 

23   4 

25  12 

27  21 

41  18 

55  15 

69  12 

83   9 

200 

41  18 

46   8 

50  25 

55  15 

83   9 

111   3 

138  24 

166  18 

500 

104   4 

115  20 

127   8 

138  24 

208   9 

277  21 

347   6 

416  18 

3000 

208   9 

321  13 

354  17 

277  21 

416  18 

555  15 

694  12 

833   9 

Depth  2  feet  9  inches. 


i 

Width 
9 
inches. 

Width 
10 
inches. 

Width 
11 
inches. 

Width 
1  foot. 

Width 
1  foot 
6  inches. 

Width 
2  feet. 

Width 
2  feet 
6  inches. 

Width 
3  feet. 

Yards. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

% 

3 

3 

4 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

1 

6 

7 

8 

8 

12 

16 

21 

25 

2 

12 

14 

15 

16 

25 

1   6 

1  14 

1  25 

3 

19 

21 

23 

25 

1  10 

1  22 

2   8 

2  20 

4 

25 

1 

1   3 

1   6 

1  22 

2  12 

3   1 

3  IS 

5 

1   4 

1   7 

1  11 

1  14 

2   8 

3   1 

3  22 

4  16 

6 

1  10 

1  14 

1  18 

1  22 

2  20 

3  18 

4  16 

5  13 

7 

1  16 

1  21 

1  26 

2   4 

3   6 

4   7 

5   9 

6  11 

8 

1  22 

2   1 

2   6 

2  12 

3  18 

4  24 

6   3 

7   9 

9 

2   2 

2   8 

2  14 

2  20 

4   3 

5  13 

6  24 

8   7 

10 

2   8 

2  15 

2  22 

3   1 

4  16 

6   3 

7  17 

9   4 

11 

2  14 

2  22 

3   2 

3  10 

5   1 

6  19 

8  11 

10   2 

12 

2  20 

3   1 

3  10 

3  18 

5  13 

7   9 

9   4 

11 

13 

2  26 

3   8 

3  17 

3  26 

5  26 

7  25 

9  25 

11  25 

14 

3   6 

3  15 

3  25 

4   7 

6  11 

8  15 

10  19 

12  22 

15 

3  12 

3  22 

4   5 

4  16 

6  24 

9   4 

11  12 

13  20 

25 

5  20 

6  10 

7 

7  17 

11  12 

15   7 

19   3 

22  25 

40 

9   4 

10   5 

11   5 

12   6 

18   9 

24  12 

30  15 

36  18 

55 

12  16 

14 

15  11 

16  22 

25   6 

33  16 

42 

50  11 

70 

16   1 

17  22 

19  16 

21  10 

32   2 

42  21 

53  13 

64   4 

85 

19  13 

21  17 

23  22 

25  2(5 

38  26 

51  25 

64  25 

77  25 

100 

22  25 

25  12 

28 

30  15 

45  22 

61   3 

76  10 

91  18 

200 

45  22 

50  25 

56 

61   3 

91  18 

122   6 

152  21 

183   9 

500 

114  16 

127   8 

140   1 

152  21 

229   4 

305  15 

381  25 

458   9 

1000 

229   4 

254  17 

280   2 

305  15 

458   9 

611   3 

7G3  24 

916  18 

400 


LAND   DRAINAGE. 


CUBIC  YARDS  OF  DIGGING  IN  DRAINS. 
Depth  3  feet. 


>sa 

"& 
c 

'Width 
9 

inches. 

Width 
10 
inches. 

Width 
11 
inches. 

Width 
1  foot. 

Width 
1  foot 
6  inches. 

Width 
2  feet. 

Width 
2  feet 
6  inches. 

Width 
3  feet. 

Yards. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

% 

3 

4 

4 

4 

7 

9 

11 

13 

I 

7 

7 

8 

9 

13 

18 

22 

1 

2 

13 

15 

16 

18 

1 

1   9 

1  18 

2 

3 

20 

22 

25 

1 

1  13 

2 

2  13 

3 

4 

1 

1   3 

1   6 

1   9 

2 

2  18 

3   9 

4 

5 

1   7 

1  10 

1  14 

1  18 

2  13 

3   9 

4   4 

5 

6 

1  13 

1  18 

1  22 

2 

3 

31  Q 

4 

41  Q 

5 

5   no 

6 

7 

8 

2 

2   6 

2  12 

2  18 

lo 
4 

lo 

5   9 

ZZ 

6  18 

( 
8 

9 

2   7 

2  13 

2  20 

3 

4  13 

6 

7  13 

9 

10 

2  13 

2  21 

3   1 

3   9 

0 

6  18 

8   9 

10 

11 

2  20 

3   1 

3  10 

3  18 

5  13 

7   9 

9   4 

11 

12 

3 

3   9 

3  18 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

13 

3   7 

3  16 

3  26 

4   9 

6  13 

8  18 

10  22 

13 

14 

3  13 

3  24 

4   7 

4  18 

7 

9   9 

11  18 

14 

15 

3  20 

4   4 

4  16 

5 

7  13 

10 

13  13 

15 

25 

6   7 

6  25 

7  18 

8   9 

12  13 

16  18 

20  22 

25 

40 

10 

11   3 

12   6 

13   9 

20 

26  18 

33   9 

40 

55 

13  20 

15   7 

16  22 

18   9 

27  13 

36  18 

42  22 

55 

70 

17  13 

19  12 

21  10 

23   9 

35 

46  18 

58   9 

70 

85 

21   7 

23  16 

25  26 

29   9 

42  13 

56  18 

70  22 

85 

100 

27  21 

30  15 

33   9 

50 

66  18 

83   9 

100 

200 

50 

55  15 

61   3 

66  18 

100 

133   9 

166  18 

200 

500 

125 

138  24 

152  21 

166  18 

250 

333   9 

416  18 

500 

1000 

250 

277  21 

305  15 

333   9 

500 

666  18 

833   9 

1000 

Depth  3  feet  3  inches. 


£ 

ti> 

I 

Width 
9 

inches. 

Width 
10 

inches. 

Width 
11 
inches. 

Width 
1  foot. 

Width 
1  foot 
6  inches. 

Width 
2  feet. 

Width 

2  feet 
6  inches 

Width 
3  feet. 

Yards. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

% 

4 

4 

4 

5" 

7 

10 

12 

15 

I 

7 

8 

9 

10 

15 

19 

24 

1   2 

2 

15 

16 

18 

19 

1   2 

1  12 

1  22 

2   4 

3 

22 

24 

1 

1   2 

1  17 

2   4 

2  19 

3   7 

4 

1   2 

1   5 

1   9 

1  12 

2   4 

2  24 

3  16 

4   9 

5 

1  10 

1  14 

1  18 

1  22 

2  19 

3  16 

4  14 

5  ]1 

6 

1  17 

1  22 

2 

2   4 

3   7 

4   9 

5  11 

6  13 

7 

1  24 

2   3 

2   9 

2  14 

3  21 

5   1 

6   9 

7  16 

8 

2   4 

2  11 

2  17 

2  24 

4   9 

5  21 

7   6 

8  18 

9 

2  12 

2  19 

2  26 

3   7 

4  24 

6  13 

8   3 

9  20 

10 

2  19 

3 

3   8 

3  16 

5  11 

7   6 

9   1 

10  22 

11 

2  26 

3   8 

3  17 

3  26 

5  26 

7  25 

9  25 

11  25 

12 

3   7 

3  16 

3  26 

4   9 

6  13 

8  18 

10  22 

13 

13 

3  14 

3  25 

4   8 

4  19 

7   1 

9  10 

11  20 

14   2 

14 

3  21 

4   6 

4  17 

5   1 

7  16 

10   3 

12  17 

15   4 

15 

4   2 

4  14 

4  26 

5  11 

8.  3 

10  22 

13  15 

16   7 

25 

6  21 

7  14 

8   7 

9   1 

13'  15 

18   1 

22  15 

27   2 

40 

10  22 

12   1 

13   6 

14  12 

21  18 

28  24 

36   3 

43   9 

55 

14  24 

16  15 

18   6 

19  23 

29  21 

39  19 

49  18 

59  16 

70 

18  26 

21   2 

23   5 

25   7 

37  25 

51  15 

63   5 

75  22 

85 

23   1 

25  16 

28   4 

30  19 

46   1 

61  10 

76  20 

92   2 

100 

27   2 

30   2 

33   3 

36   3 

54   4 

72   6 

90   7 

108   9 

200 

54   4 

60   5 

66   5 

72   6 

108   9 

144  12 

180  15 

216  18 

500 

135  11 

150  12 

165  14 

180  15 

270  22 

361   3 

451  10 

541  18 

1000 

270  22 

300  25 

331 

361   3 

541  18 

722   6 

902  21 

1083   9 

DIGGING    UNDERDBAINS. 

CUBIC  YARDS  OF  DIGGING  IN  DRAINS. 
Depth  3  feet  6  inches. 


401 


f 

Width 
9 
inches. 

Width 
10 
inches. 

Width 
11 
inches. 

Width 
Ifoot. 

Width 
Ifoot 
6  inches. 

Width 
2  feet. 

Width 
2  feet 
6  inches. 

Width 
3  feet. 

Yards. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

K 

4 

4 

5 

5 

8 

10 

13 

16 

f 

8 

9 

10 

10 

16 

21 

26 

1   4 

2 

16 

17 

19 

21 

1   4 

1  15 

1  25 

2   9 

3 

24 

26 

1   2 

1   4 

1  20 

2   9 

2  25 

3  13 

4 

1   4 

1   8 

1  11 

1  15 

2   9 

3   3 

3  24 

4  18 

5 

1  12 

1  17 

1  21 

1  25 

2  25 

3  24 

4  23 

6  22 

6 

1  20 

1  25 

2   4 

2   9 

3  13 

4  18 

5  22 

7 

7 

2   1 

2   7 

2  13 

2  19 

4   2 

5  12 

6  22 

8   4 

8 

2   9 

2  16 

2  23 

3   3 

4  18 

6   6 

7  21 

9   9 

Jt 

2  17 

2  25 

3   6 

3  13 

5   7 

7 

8  20 

10  13 

io 

2  25 

3   6 

3  15 

3  24 

5  22 

7  21 

9  19 

11  18 

11 

3   6 

3  15 

3  25 

4   7 

6  11 

8  15 

10  19 

12  22 

12 

3  13 

3  24 

4   7 

4  18 

7 

9   9 

11  18 

14 

13 

3  21 

4   6 

4  17 

5   1 

7  16 

10   3 

12  17 

15   4 

14 

4   2 

4  14 

5 

5  12 

8   4 

10  24 

13  16 

16   9 

15 

4  10 

4  23 

5   9 

5  22 

8  20 

11  18 

14  16 

17  13 

25 

7   8 

8   3 

8  25 

9  19 

14  16 

19  12 

24   8 

29   4 

40 

11  18 

12  26 

14   7 

15  15 

23   9 

31   3 

38  24 

46  18 

65 

16   1 

17  22 

19  16 

21  10 

32   2 

42  21 

53  13 

64   4 

70 

20  11 

22  18 

24  28 

27   6 

40  22 

54  12 

68   1 

81  18 

85 

24  21 

27  15 

30   8 

33   1 

49  16 

66   3 

82  17 

99   4 

100 

29   4 

32  11 

35  17 

38  24 

58   9 

77  21 

97   6 

116  18 

aw 

58   9 

64  22 

71   8 

77  21 

116  18 

155  15 

194  12 

233   9 

500 

145  22 

162   1 

178   6 

194  12 

291  18 

388  24 

486   3 

583   9 

1000 

291  18 

324   2 

356  13 

388  24 

583   9 

777  21 

972   6 

1166  18 

Depth  3  feet  9  inches. 


.3 
M 

Width 
9 
inches. 

Width 
10 
inches. 

Width 
11 
inches. 

Width 
1  foot. 

Width 
Ifoot 
6  inches. 

Width 
2  feet. 

Width 
2  feet 
6  inches. 

Width 
3  feet. 

Yards. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

% 

4 

5 

5 

6 

8 

11 

14 

17 

1 

8 

9 

10 

11 

17 

22 

1   1 

1   7 

2 

17 

19 

21 

22 

1   7 

1  18 

2   2 

2  13 

3 

25 

1   1 

1   4 

1   7 

1  24 

2  13 

3   3 

3  20 

4 

1   7 

1  10 

1  14 

1  18 

2  13 

3   9 

4   4 

5 

5 

1  15 

1  20 

1  25 

2   2 

3   3 

4   4 

5   6 

6   7 

6 

1  24 

2   2 

2   8 

2  13 

3  20 

5 

6   7 

7  13 

7 

2   5 

2  12 

2  18 

2  25 

4  10 

5  22 

7   8 

8  20 

8 

2  13 

2  2L 

3   1 

3   9 

5 

6  18 

8   9 

10 

9 

2  22 

3   3 

3  12 

3  20 

5  17 

7  13 

9  10 

11   7 

10 

3   3 

3  13 

3  22 

4   4 

6   7 

8   9 

10  11 

12  13 

11 

3  12 

3  22 

4   5 

4  16 

6  24 

9   4 

11  12 

13  20 

12 

3  20 

4   4 

4  16 

5 

7  13 

10 

12  13 

15 

13 

4   2 

4  14 

4  26 

5  11 

8   3 

10  22 

13  15 

16   7 

14 

4  10 

4  23 

5   9 

5  22 

8  20 

11  18 

14  16 

17  13 

15 

4  19 

5   6 

5  20 

6   7 

9  10 

12  13 

15  17 

18  20 

25 

7  22 

8  18 

9  15 

10  11 

15  17 

20  22 

26   1 

31   7 

40 

12  13 

13  24 

15   7 

16  18 

25 

33   9 

41  18 

50 

55 

17   5 

19   3 

21 

22  25 

34  10 

45  22 

57   8 

68  20 

70 

21  24 

24   8 

26  20 

29   4 

43  20 

58   9 

72  25 

87  13 

85 

26  15 

29  14 

32  13 

35  11 

53   3 

70  22 

88  15 

106   7 

100 

31   7 

34  19 

38   5 

41  18 

62  13 

83   9 

104   4 

125 

200 

62  13 

69  12 

76  10 

83   9 

125 

166  18 

20S   9 

250 

500 

156   7 

173  16 

190  26 

208   9 

312  13 

416  18 

520  22 

625 

1000 

313  31 

347   6   381  2-> 

416  18 

625 

£«   V) 

H>41  18 

1250 

35 


402 


LAND    DRAINAGE. 


CUBIC  YARDS  OF  DIGGING  IN  DRAINS. 
Depth  4  feet. 


Jg 

JL 

Width 
9 
inches. 

Width 
10 
inches. 

Width 
11 

inches. 

Width 
1  foot. 

Width 
1  foot 
6  inches. 

Width 
2  feet. 

Width 
2  feet 
6  inches. 

Width 
3  feet. 

Yards. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft, 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

% 

4 

5 

5 

6 

9 

12 

15 

18 

I 

9 

10 

11 

12 

18 

24 

1   3 

1   9 

2 

18 

20 

22 

24 

1   9 

1  21 

2   6 

2  18 

3 

1 

1   3 

1   6 

1   9 

2 

2  18 

3   9 

4 

4 

1   9 

1  13 

1  17 

1  21 

2  18 

3  15 

4  12 

5   9 

5 

1  18 

1  23 

2   1 

2   6 

3   9 

4  12 

5  15 

6  18 

G 

2 

2   0 

2  12 

2  18 

4 

5   9 

6  18 

8 

7 

2   9 

2  16 

2  23 

3   3 

4  18 

6   6 

7  21 

9   9 

8 

2  18 

2  26 

3   7 

3  15 

5   9 

7   3 

8  24 

10  18 

9 

3 

3   9 

3  18 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

10 

3   9 

3  19 

4   2 

4  12 

6  18 

8  24 

11   3 

13   9 

11 

3  18 

'  4   2 

4  13 

4  24 

7   9 

9  21 

12   6 

14  18 

12 

4 

4  12 

4  24 

5   9 

8 

10  18 

13   9 

16 

13 

4   9 

4  22 

5   8 

5  21 

8  18 

11  15 

14  12 

17   9 

14 

4  18 

5   5 

5  19 

6   6 

9   9 

12  12 

15  15 

18  18 

15 

5 

5  15 

6   3 

6  18 

10 

13   y 

16  18 

20 

25 

8   9 

9   7 

10   5 

11   3 

16  18 

22   6 

27  21 

33   9 

40 

13   9 

14  22 

Hi   8 

17  21 

26  18 

35  15 

44  12 

53   9 

55 

18   9 

20  10 

22  11 

24  12 

36  18 

48  24 

61   3 

73   9 

70 

23   9 

25  25 

28  14 

31   3 

46  18 

62   6 

77  21 

93   9 

85 

28   9 

31  13 

34  17 

37  21 

56  18 

75  15 

94  12 

113   9 

100 

33   9 

37   1 

40  20 

44  12 

66  18 

88  24 

111   3 

133   9 

200 

66  18 

74   2 

81  13 

88  24 

L3   9 

177  21 

222   6 

2ti6  18 

500 

166  18 

185   5 

203  19 

222   0 

3.'53   9 

444  12 

T55  15 

666  18 

1000 

333   9 

370  10 

407  11 

444  12 

066  18 

888  24 

1111   3 

Io33   9 

Depth  4  feet  6  inches. 


3 
So 

Width 
9 
inches. 

Width 
10 
inches. 

Width 
11 

inches. 

Width 

1  foot. 

Width 
Ifoot 
6  inches. 

Width 

2  feet. 

Width 
2  feet 
6  inches. 

Width 
3  feet. 

Yards. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft, 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

% 

5 

(; 

6 

7 

10 

13 

17 

20 

1 

10 

11 

12 

13 

20 

1 

1   7 

1  13 

2 

20 

22 

25 

1 

1  13 

2 

2  13 

3 

3 

1   3 

1   7 

1  10 

1  13 

2   7 

3 

3  20 

4  13 

4 

1  13 

1  18 

1  22 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

5 

1  24 

2   2 

2   8 

2  13 

3  20 

5 

6   7 

7  13 

6 

2   7 

2  13 

2  20 

3 

4  13 

6 

7  13 

9 

7 

2  17 

2  25 

3   6 

3  13 

5   7 

7 

8  20 

10  13 

8 

3 

3   9 

3  18 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

9 

3  10 

3  20 

4   3 

4  13 

6  20 

9 

11   7 

13  13 

10 

3  20 

4   4 

4  16 

5 

7  13 

10 

12  13 

15 

11 

4   3 

4  16 

5   1 

5  13 

8   7 

11 

13  20 

16  13 

12 

4  13 

5 

5  13 

6 

9 

12 

15 

18 

13 

4  24 

5  11 

5  26 

6  13 

9  20 

13 

16   7 

19  13 

14 

5   7 

5  22 

6  11 

7 

10  13 

14 

17  1:5 

21 

15 

5  17 

6   7 

0  24 

7  13 

11   7 

15 

18  20 

22  13 

25 

9  10 

10  11 

11  12 

12  13 

18  20 

25 

31   7 

37  13 

40 

15 

16  18 

18   9 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

55 

20  17 

22  25 

25   6 

27  13 

41   7 

55 

68  20 

82  13 

70 

26   7 

29   4 

32   2 

35 

52  13 

70 

87  13 

105 

85 

31  24 

35  11 

38  26 

42  13 

63  20 

85 

106   7 

127  13 

100 

37  13 

41  18 

45  22 

50 

75 

100 

125 

150 

200 

75 

83   9 

91  18 

100 

150 

200 

250 

300 

500 

187  13 

208   9 

229   4 

250 

375 

500 

626 

750 

1000 

375 

416  18 

458   9 

500 

750 

1000 

1250 

1500 

DIGGING   UNDERDRAINS. 

CUBIC  YARDS  OF  DIGGING  IN  DRAINS. 
Depth  5  feet. 


403 


i 
j 

Width 
9 
inches. 

Width 
10 
inches. 

Width 
11 
inches. 

Width 
Ifoot. 

Width 
Ifoot 
6  inches. 

Width 
2  feet. 

Width 
2  feet 
6  inches. 

Width 

3  feet. 

Yard*. 

Ydu.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

y« 

6 

6 

7 

7 

11 

15 

19 

22 

i 

11 

12 

14 

16 

22 

1   3 

1  10 

1  18 

2 

22 

25 

1 

1   3 

1  18 

2   6 

2  21 

3   9 

3 

1   7 

1  10 

1  14 

1  18 

2  13 

3   9 

4   4 

5 

4 

1  18 

1  23 

2   1 

2   6 

3   9 

4  12 

5  15 

6  18 

5 

2   2 

2   8 

2  15 

2  21 

4   4 

5  15 

6  25 

8   9 

6 

2  13 

2  21 

3   1 

3   9 

5 

6  18 

8   9 

10 

7 

2  25 

3   6 

3  15 

3  24 

5  22 

7  21 

9  19 

11  18 

8 

3   9 

3  19 

4   2 

4  12 

6  18 

8  24 

11   3 

13   9 

9 

3  20 

4   4 

4  16 

5 

7  13 

10 

12  13 

15 

10 

4   4 

4  17 

5   2 

5  15 

8   9 

11   3 

13  24 

16  18 

11 

4  16 

5   2 

5  16 

6   3 

9   4 

12   6 

15   7 

18   9 

12 

5 

5  15 

6   3 

6  18 

10 

13   9 

16  18 

20 

13 

5  11 

6 

6  17 

7   6 

10  22 

14  12 

18   1 

21  18 

14 

5  22 

6  13 

7   3 

"  7  21 

11  18 

15  15 

19  12 

23   9 

15 

6   7 

6  25 

7  17 

8   9 

12  13 

16  18 

20  22 

25 

26 

10  11 

11  15 

12  20 

13  24 

20  22 

27  21 

34  19 

41  18 

40 

16  18 

18  14 

20  10 

22   6 

33   9 

44  12 

55  15 

66  18 

55 

22  25 

25  12 

28 

30  15 

45  22 

61   3 

76  10 

91  18 

70 

29   4 

32  11 

35  17 

38  24 

68   9 

77  21 

97   6 

116  18 

85 

35  11 

39   9 

43   8 

47   6 

70  22 

94  12 

118   1 

141  18 

100 

41  18 

46   8 

50  25 

55  15 

83   9 

111   3 

138  24 

K.6  18 

200 

83   9 

92  16 

101  23 

111   3 

166  18 

222   6 

277  21 

333   9 

500 

208   9 

231  13 

254  17 

277  21 

416  18 

555  15 

694  12 

833   9 

1000 

416  18 

462  26 

509   7 

555  15  i  833   9 

LI  11   3 

1388  24 

1666  18 

Depth  5  feet  6  inches. 


I 

Width 
9 
inches. 

Width 
10 
inches. 

Width 
11 
inches. 

Width 
1  foot. 

Width 
1  foot 
6  inches. 

Width 
2  feet. 

Width 
2  feet 
6  inches. 

Width 
3  feet. 

Yards. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

y* 

6 

7 

> 

8 

12 

16 

21 

25 

1 

12 

14 

15 

16 

25 

1   6 

1  14 

1  22 

2 

26 

1 

1   3 

1   6 

1  22 

2  12 

3   1 

3  18 

3 

1  10 

1.  14 

1  18 

1  22 

2  20 

3  18 

4  16 

5  13 

4 

1  22 

2   1 

2   6 

2  12 

3  18 

4  24 

6   3 

7  y 

5 

2   8 

2  15 

2  22 

3   1 

.4  16 

6   .3 

7  17 

9   4 

6 

2  20 

3   1 

3  10 

3  18 

5  13 

7   9 

!i   4 

11 

7 

3   6 

3  15 

3  25 

4   7 

6  11 

8  15 

10  19 

12  22 

8 

3  18 

4   2 

4  13 

4  24 

7   9 

9  21 

12   6 

14  18 

9 

4   3 

4  16 

5\  1 

5  13 

8   7 

11 

13  20 

16  13 

10 

4  16 

5   2 

5  16 

6   3 

9   4 

12   6 

15   7 

18   9 

11 

5   1 

5  16 

6   4 

6  19 

10   2 

13  12 

16  22 

20   4 

12 

5  13 

6   3 

6  19 

7   9 

11 

14  18 

18   9 

22 

13 

5  26 

6  17 

7   8 

7  25 

11  25 

15  24 

19  23 

23  22 

14 

6  11 

7   3 

7  23 

8  15 

12  22 

17   3 

21  10 

25  18 

15 

6  24 

7  17 

8  11 

9   4 

13  20 

18   9 

22  25 

27  13 

25 

11  12 

12  20 

14 

15   7 

22  25 

30  15 

38   5 

45  22 

40 

18   9 

20  10 

22  11 

24  12 

36  18 

48  24 

61   3 

73   9 

65 

25   6 

28 

30  22 

33  16 

50  11 

67   6 

84   1 

KH)  22 

70 

32   2 

35  17 

39   6 

42  21 

64   4 

85  15 

106  25 

It*   9 

85 

38  26 

43   8 

47  17 

51  25 

77  25 

103  24 

129  23 

].y>  22 

100 

45  22 

50  25 

56 

61   3 

91  18 

122   6 

152  21 

183   9 

200 

91  )8 

101  23 

112   1 

122   6 

183   9 

244  12 

205  15 

366  18 

500 

229   4 

254  17 

280   2 

305  15 

458   9 

611   3 

763  24 

916  18 

1000 

458   9 

509   7 

500   5 

611   3 

916  18 

1222   6 

1527  21 

1833   9 

404 


LAND   DRAINAGE. 


CUBIC  YARDS  OF  DIGGING  IN  DRAINS. 
Depth  6  feet. 


1 

Width 
0 
inches. 

Width 
10 
inches. 

Width 
11 

inches. 

Width 
1  foot. 

Width 
1  foot 
G  inches. 

Width 
2  feet. 

Width 

2  feet 
6  inches. 

Width 
3  feet. 

Yards. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft, 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

% 

7 

7 

8 

9 

13 

18 

22 

1 

1 

13 

15 

16 

18 

1 

1   9 

1  18 

2 

2 

1 

1   3 

1   6 

1   9 

2 

2  18 

3   9 

4 

3 

1  13 

1  18 

1  22 

2 

3 

4 

5 

G 

4 

2 

2   G 

2  12 

2  18 

4 

5   9 

G  18 

8 

5 

2  13 

2  21 

3   1 

3   9 

5 

G  18 

8   9 

10 

6 

3 

3   9 

3  18 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

7 

3  13 

3  24 

4   7 

4  18 

7 

9   9 

11  18 

14 

8 

4 

4  12 

4  24 

5   9 

8 

10  18 

13   9 

16 

9 

4  13 

5 

5  13 

G 

9 

12 

15 

18 

10 

5 

5  15 

G   3 

G  18 

10 

13   9 

16  18 

20 

11 

5  13 

f>   3 

6  19 

7   9 

11 

14  18 

18   9 

22 

12 

6 

G  18 

7   9 

8 

12 

18 

20 

24 

13 

G  13 

7   6 

7  25 

8  18 

13 

17   9 

21  18 

26 

14 

7 

7  21 

8  15 

9   9 

14 

18  18 

23   0 

28 

15 

7  13 

8   9 

9   4 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

25 

12  13 

13  24 

15   7 

1G  18 

25 

33   9 

41  18 

50 

40 

20 

22   G 

24  12 

2(i  18 

40 

53   9 

GG  18 

80 

55 

27  13 

30  15 

33  1G 

3G  18 

55 

73   9 

91  18 

110 

70  , 

35 

38  24 

42  21 

4G  18 

70 

93   9 

116  18 

140 

85 

42  13 

47   G 

51  25 

5G  18 

85 

113   9 

141  18 

170 

100 

50 

55  15 

61   3 

(>6  IS 

100 

133   9 

166  18 

200 

200 

100 

111   3 

122   6 

133   9 

200 

2GG  18 

333   9 

400 

500 

250 

277  21 

305  15 

333   9 

500 

GGG  18 

833   9 

1000 

1000 

500 

555  15 

611   3 

GliG  18 

1000 

1333   9 

1666  18 

•2000 

Depth  6  feet  6  inches. 


,q 

M 

q 

Width 
9 
inches. 

Width 

10 
inches. 

Width 
11 

inches. 

Width 
1  foot. 

Width 
1  foot 
G  inches. 

Width 
2  feet. 

Width 
2  feet 
6  inches. 

Width 
3  feet. 

Yards. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

% 

7 

8 

9 

10 

15 

19 

24 

1   2 

1 

15 

16 

18 

19 

1   2 

1  12 

1  22 

2   4 

2 

1   2 

1   5 

1   9 

1  12 

2   4 

2  24 

3  16 

4   it 

3 

1  17 

1  22 

2 

2   4 

3   7 

4   i) 

5  11 

6  13 

4 

2   4 

2  11 

2  17 

2  24 

4   9 

5  21 

7   6 

8  18 

5 

2  19 

3 

3   8 

3  16 

5  11 

7   6 

9   1 

10  22 

6 

3   7 

3  16 

3  26 

4   9 

G  13 

8  18 

10  22 

13 

7 

3  21 

4   G 

4  17 

5   1 

7  16 

10   3 

12  17 

15   4 

8 

4   9 

4  22 

5  18 

5  21 

8  18 

11  15 

14  12 

17   9 

9 

4  24 

5  11 

5  26 

6  13 

9  20 

13 

16   7 

1!)  i:j 

10 

6  11 

(y 

6  17 

7   G 

10  22 

14  12 

18   1 

21  IS 

11 

5  2-0 

G  17 

7   8 

7  25 

11  25 

15  24 

19  23 

23  22 

12 

6  13 

7   6 

7  25 

8  18 

13 

17   9 

21  18 

26 

13 

7   1 

7  22 

8  16 

9  10 

14   2 

18  21 

23  13 

28   4 

14 

7  16 

8  11 

9   7 

10   3 

15   4 

20   6 

25   7 

30   9 

15 

8   3 

9   1 

9  25 

10  22 

16   7 

21  18 

27   2 

32  13 

25 

13  15 

15   1 

16  15 

18   1 

27   2 

36   3 

45   4 

54   4 

40 

21  18 

24   2 

26  13 

28  24 

43   9 

57  21 

72   6 

86  IS 

55 

29  21 

33   3 

36  11 

39  19 

59  16 

79  12 

99   8 

119   4 

70 

37  25 

42   3  1  46   9 

50  15 

75  22 

101   3 

126  10 

151  18 

85 

40   1 

51   4 

56   7 

61  10 

92   2 

122  21 

153  13 

184   4 

100 

54   4 

60   5 

GG   5 

72   6 

108   9 

144  12 

180  15 

216  18 

200 

108   9 

120  1  0 

132  11 

144  12 

216  18 

288  24 

361   3 

433   9 

500 

270  22 

300  25 

331 

3G1   3 

541  18 

722   6 

902  21 

083   9 

1000 

541  18 

601  23 

6(;2   1 

722   G 

1083   9  J1444  12 

1805  15 

21615  18 

DIGGING    UNDERDRAINS. 


405 


CUBIC  YARDS  OF  DIGGING  IN  DRAINS. 
Depth  7  feet. 


j 

Width 
9 
inches. 

Width 
10 
inches. 

Width 
11 
inches. 

Width 
Ifoot. 

Width 
Ifoot 
6  inches. 

Width 
2  feet. 

Width 
2  feet 
6  inches. 

Width 
3  feet. 

Yardfl. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

Yds.  ft. 

% 

8 

9 

10 

10 

16 

21 

26 

1   4 

1 

16 

17 

19 

21 

1   4 

1  15 

1  25 

2   9 

2 

1   4 

1   8 

1  11 

1  15 

2   9 

3   3 

3  24 

4  18 

3 

1  20 

1  25 

2   4 

2   9 

3  13 

4  18 

5  22 

7 

4 

2   9 

2  16 

2  23 

3   3 

4  18 

6   6 

7  21 

9   9 

5 

2  25 

3   6 

3  15 

3  24 

5  22 

7  21 

9  19 

11  18 

ft 

3  13 

3  24 

4   7 

4  18 

7 

9   9 

11  18 

14 

7 

4   2 

4  14 

5 

6  12 

8   4 

10  24 

13  16 

16   9 

8 

4  18 

5   6 

5  19 

6   6 

9   9 

12  12 

15  15 

18  18 

9 

5   7 

5  22 

6  11 

7 

10  13 

14 

17  13 

21 

10 

5  22 

6  13 

7   3 

7  21 

11  18 

15  15 

19  12 

23   9 

11 

6  11 

7   3 

7  23 

8  15 

12  22 

17   3 

21  10 

25  18 

12 

7 

7  21 

8  15 

9   9 

14 

18  18 

23   9 

28 

13 

7  16 

8  11 

9   7 

10   3 

15   4 

20   6 

25   7 

30   9 

14 

8   4 

9   2 

9  26 

10  24 

16   9 

21  21 

27   6 

32  18 

15 

8  20 

9  19 

10  19 

11  18 

17  13 

23   9 

29   4 

35 

25 

14  16 

16   5 

17  22 

19  12 

29   4 

38  24 

48  16 

58   9 

40 

23   9 

25  25 

28  14 

31   3 

46  18 

62   6 

77  21 

93   9 

55 

32   2 

35  17 

39   6 

42  21 

64   4 

85  15 

106  25 

128   9 

70 

40  22 

45  10 

49  24 

54  12 

81  18 

108  24 

136   3 

163   9 

85 

49  16 

55   2 

60  16 

68   3 

99   4 

132   6 

165   7 

198   9 

100 

58   9 

64  22 

71   8 

77  21 

116  18 

155  15 

194  12 

233   9 

200 

116  18 

129  17 

142  16 

155  16 

233   9 

311   3 

388  24 

466  18 

500 

291  18 

324   2 

356  13 

388  24 

583   9 

777  21 

972   6 

1166  18 

1000 

583   9 

648   4 

712  28 

777  21 

1166  18 

1155  15 

1944  12 

2333   9 

For  example,  it  is  required  to  know  how  many  cubic 
yards  of  earth  are  to  be  removed  in  making  100  yards  of 
drain,  3  feet  deep ;  the  top  width  being  18  inches  and  the 
bottom  4  inches. 

18 
4 

2)22 

11  inches,  mean  width. 

Find,  under  the  head  of  3  feet  deep,  in  the  column  length, 
the  number  of  yards;  then  under  the  column  of  11  inches 
wide,  opposite  the  number  of  yards,  will  be  found  the 
number  of  cubic  yards  in  the  proposed  drain. 

Many  machines  have  been  invented  for  the  purpose  of 
digging  ditches,  thus  not  only  making  them  in  a  much 
shorter  period  of  time,  but  much  cheaper.  We  believe 
ditching,  or  drain  plows  (not  mole  plows)  have  been  ex- 


406  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

hibited  at  every  fair  held  by  the  Ohio  State  Board  of 
Agriculture  since  1856 ;  but  we  do  not  remember  of  having 
seen  a  single  one,  among  the  entire  lot,  which  we  could 
recommend  to  the  farmers  as  being  an  implement  with 
which  they  would  not  be  disappointed. 

Messrs.  Pratt,  of  Canandaigua,  N.  Y.,  have  invented  a 
ditching  machine,  which  is  highly  recommended  by  the 
"Rural  New  Yorker;"  but  parties  who  have  witnessed 
its  operation  are  not  so  favorably  impressed  with  it.  Mr. 
JB.  B.  Briggs,  of  Sharon,  Medina  county,  Ohio,  in  1859, 
invented  a  machine,  which  looks  not  very  unlike  a  mole 
plow,  to  lay  tile  without  digging  a  ditch.  The  following 
is  Mr.  Briggs7  own  account  of  the  working  capability  of 
the  machine.  While  we  have  no  disposition  to  deny  that 
this  machine  will  do  precisely  what  Mr.  Briggs  claims  for 
it,  we  must,  at  the  same  time,  be  permitted  to  state  that 
we  would  not  recommend  any  one  to  undertake  to  under- 
drain  any  considerable  quantity  of  land  in  this  manner ; 
because  it  is  a  matter  of  impossibility  to  have  the  tile  as 
firmly  and  as  correctly  laid  as  if  done  by  hand. 

"My  mode  of  taking  round  tile  (which  are  considered  the  best 
by  those  most  experienced)  is  this : — Make  an  excavation  at  the 
heel  of  the  mole,  with  a  gentle  inclination  backward;  then  fasten 
the  first  section  of  rope  to  the  heel  of  the  mole ;  then  string  said 
section  with  tile  to  within  about  four  feet  of  the  mole,  and  secure  it 
by  means  of  a  set  of  clutches,  and  the  hook  of  the  succeeding  sec- 
tion ;  each  section  to  be  about  twenty-five  feet  long,  though  I  have 
taken  in  upward  of  fifty  feet  to  each  set  of  clutches.  The  machine 
can  then  be  moving  forward,  as  the  next  section  is  being  strung  and 
secured  as  before,  and  so  continue  to  do,  until  so  much  is  taken  in 
as  the  strength  of  the  rope  will  justify,  say  four  hundred  or  more 
feet.  Next,  dig  down  again  at  the  heel  of  the  mole  (making  the 
excavation  as  before),  and  detach  the  rope ;  then  draw  it  out  by  hand 
from  the  place  of  entrance,  and  again  proceed  as  before.  The  spaces 
left  at  the  excavation  can  be  filled  in  by  hand,  and  the  joints  of  tile 


DIGGING   UNDERDRAINS. 


407 


set  close  together,  by  prying  from  either  end,  as  one  can  move  four 
hundred  or  more  feet  with  an  iron  bar. 
"  This  machine  can  be  used  in  all     Z> 
places  where  the  mole  plow  can,  and 
for  laying  almost  any  kind  of  tile ; 
for  the  arch  and  sole,  or  horseshoe, 
the  clutches  are  made  fast  to  one  con- 
tinuous rope,  at   such   intervals   as 
may  be  thought  necessary.  The  main, 
or  one  into  which  the  smaller  ditches 
empty,  should  of  course  be  larger, 
and  put  in  by  hand,  as  they  could 
not  be  joined  by  the  machine." 

Mr.  Paul,  of  Thorpe  Abbots, 
near  Scole,  Norfolk,  England, 
has  lately  invented  an  ingeni- 
ous machine  for  cutting  drains, 
of  which  we  give  an  elevation, 
Fig.  82.  It  is  drawn,  as  will 
be  seen,  by  means  of  chain  and 
capstan,  worked  by  horses ;  and 
at  the  same  time  that  it  moves 
forward,  it  acts  as  a  slotting 
machine  on  the  land,  the  tools 
on  the  circumference  of  xthe 
acting  wheel  taking  successive 
bites  of  the  soil,  each  lifting  a 
portion  from  the  full  depth  to 
which  it  is  desired  that  the 
trench  should  be  cut,  and  lay- 
ing the  earth,  thus  removed, 
on  the  surface,  at  either  side. 
There  is  a  lifting  apparatus  at 
the  end  of  the  machine,  by  which  the  cutting  wheel  may  „ 
be  raised  or  lowered,  according  to  the  unevenness  of  the 
surface,  in  order  to  insure  a  perfectly  uniform  "  fall "  in 


FIG.  82. 


408  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

the  bottom  of  the  drain.  The  whole  process  is  carried 
on  at  the  rate  of  about  four  feet  per  minute ;  and  it  re- 
sults, on  suitable  soils,  in  cutting  a  -drain  from  three  to 
five  feet  deep,  leaving  it  in  a  finished  state,  with  a  level 
bottom  for  the  tiles  to  rest  upon.  It  seems  to  present 
the  right  idea  of  a  draining  plow,  and  whether  success- 
fully developed  in  the  present  instance  or  not,  we  think 
it  probable  that  a  machine  constructed  on  these  princi- 
ples, will  yet  be  found  cheaply  effectual  for  the  purpose 
which  now  involves  such  an  enormous  cost  of  manual 
labor.  Mr.  J.  J.  Thomas,  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Coun- 
try Gentleman,  says : 

"  The  writer  has  made  many  experiments  with  various  ditching 
machines,  with  a  hope  of  greatly  reducing  this  heavy  expense,  and 
has  at  last  attained  the  desired  object  in  a  considerable  degree — so 
that  ditches,  costing  at  three  feet  in  depth  not  less  than  30  cents  a 
rod  in  the  hard  clayey,  tenacious  soil  operated  on,  have  been  cut  for 
about  12  cents  a  rod;  and  it  is  believed  that,  with  the  practical 
knowledge  now  attained,  3-feet  drains  may  be  cut  for  10  cents  a  rod, 
or  at  one  third  the  cost  when  done  wholly  by  hand. 

"The  process  is  a  very  simple  one.  A  subsoil  plow  of  peculiar 
construction,  is  so  made  that  the  draught-beam  and  handles  may  be 
successively  elevated,  as  the  ditch  becomes  deeper;  with  this  plow 
and  a  pair  of  horses,  the  hard  earth  in  the  bottom  of  the  drain,  which 
is  only  loosened  by  the  pick,  in  the  common  process,  is  broken  up, 
and  all  the  hand  labor  required  is  throwing  out  this  loose  earth. 
This  labor  is  performed  with  the  common  long-handled,  pointed 
shovels,  and  when  the  ditch  has  been  cut  to  about  one  half  of  its 
intended  depth,  a  similar  shovel,  with  the  sides  bent  up  at  a  black- 
smith's, to  fit  the  narrow  channel,  is  then  made  use  of.  A  very  hard 
or  stony  hard-pan  requires  considerable  dressing  off  with  the  pick, 
to  prepare  the  bottom  for  laying  the  tile ;  but  where  the  soil  is  more 
favorable,  such  dressing  is  scarcely  necessary.  One  two-horse  team 
will  commonly  plow  fast  enough  to  keep  from  six  to  twelve  men 
constantly  shoveling,  varying  with  the  hardness  of  the  soil. 

"In  an  experiment  performed  the  present  autumn  in  cutting  drains 
a  mile  and  a  fourth  in  aggregate  length,  a  small  portion  was  much 
intercepted  with  rocks  and  some  quarry  stone,  with  great  numbers 


DIGGING   UNDERDRAINS.  400 

of  smaller  stones.     Through  these  portions,  the  subsoil  loosening 
plow  could  be  used  but  imperfectly,  and  it  was  necessary  to  occupy 
eight  days'  work  in  quarrying,  etc.,  and  ten  days  more  in  dressing 
off  these  stony  and  hard  bottoms  with  pick  and  crowbar. 
"  The  following  is  the  actual  cost  of  400  rods  : — 

4  days  with  two-horse  team,        ....          $  8,00 
35     "     shoveling,  87 \  cents,    -        -      ..-;>-        30,75 
10     "     dressing  bottom,  etc.,       -     .!£•;:>•?        •  8,75 

8     '"     quarrying  rocks,  etc.,  -        -        -        -        »  <       7,00 

5  "     laying  tile  and  covering  it,  4,37 
5500  tile,  95  cents, 52,25 

Drawing  half  mile, 2,00 

Plowing  in  ditches,      .  '^ :-_      1,50 

$114,62 
or,  28£  cents  a  rod  completed. 

"  Omitting  the  four  last  items,  connected  with  the  tile  and  laying 
it,  the  cost  of  merely  cutting  the  drains  is  $54.50,  or  13 \  cents  a  rod ; 
or,  omitting  the  cost  of  quarrying  the  stone,  and  two  thirds  of  dress- 
ing the  bottom  (this  being  confined  to  a  very  small  portion),  the  ex- 
pense would  be  10  1-5  cents  u  rod. 

"  A  part  of  the  work  was  done  during  a  severe  drought,  when  the 
subsoil  was  very  hard,  and  the  loosening  was  consequently  slower 
and  more  laborious.  Earlier  in  the  season,  when  the  earth  is  softer, 
the  loosening  plow  would  do  its  work  in  less  than  half  the  time  here 
required.  This  would  be  especially  important  where  a  fractious 
hard-pan  exists.  From  one  to  six  inches  of  earth  are  loosened  at 
each  passage  of  the  plow.  An  "  evener,"  or  central  whipple-tree, 
from  five  to  seven  feet  long,  is  required,  the  horses  walking  on  oppo- 
site sides  of  the  ditch. 

"  It  is  also  very  obvious  that  no  complex  machine  can  ever  succeed 
as  a  ditcher,  especially  among  stones,  which  constantly  tend  to  jar 
and  break  it,  but  that  the  very  simplest  form  of  excavators  must  be 
adopted,  which  are  easy  to  handle,  light  in  striking  stones,  not  liable 
to  breakage,  and  easily  and  cheaply  repaired." 
36 


CHAPTER     XII. 


TIME  TO  CUT  DRAINS,  AND  LAY  TILE. 

No  ONE  should  ever  undertake  to  make  drains  in  wet 
weather,  or  in  severe  frost.  When  the  land  is  unoccupied, 
and  the  weather  dry,  draining  may  be  carried  on  with  suc- 
cess. It  can  be  managed  to  the  best  advantage  when  the 
land  is  in  stubble  or  pasture,  and  is  afterward  to  be  plowed 
for  a  crop.  After  the  removal  of  a  crop  in  the  fall,  is  a  very 
favorable  time,  but  it  must  be  finished  before  the  fall  rains 
set  in,  or  before  hard  frosts  come.  In  any  case,  it  should 
be  done  in  the  spring  before  a  crop  is  put  in,  or  before 
the  land  is  fallowed  in  the  fall,  or  rather  one  of  the  oper- 
ations should  follow  it  in  a  short  time,  that  the  superior 
condition  into  which  the  soil  may  then  be  brought  may  be 
realized  at  the  earliest  possible  moment. 

Tile  lying  may  commence  at  either  end  of  the  drain. 
When  the  soil  is  sandy,  and  liable  to  fall  in,  it  is  usual  to 
begin  at  the  lower  end,  and  fill  in  as  the  work  progresses, 
taking  care  to  have  the  last  tile  well  stuffed  with  straw  to 
prevent  the  mud  from  entering,  while  another  piece  is  be- 
ing dug.  Where  there  is  little  danger  of  the  sides  falling 
in,  it  is  decidedly  better  to  have  the  whole  drain  dug  out 
before  a  single  tile  is  laid,  and  to  have  the  tile  laying  com- 
mence at  the  upper  end  of  the  drain.  In  this  way  the 
tiles  are  kept  clear  of  mud,  and  there  is  an  opportunity 
to  correct  any  defect  in  the  digging,  or  to  equalize  the 
fall  more  perfectly  than  could  otherwise  be  done.  Tiles 
are  usually  laid  with  the  instrument  heretofore  described. 
(See  Tile  Layer,  Fig.  74,  page  391.)  They  are  laid  as 
closely  together,  and  the  joints  made  to  fit  as  perfectly  as 
M10) 


TIME    TO    CUT   DRAINS,   AND    LAY    TILE.  411 

possible.  When  the  warping  of  the  tiles  in  burning  makes 
it  impossible  to  lay  them  absolutely  straight,  all  deviations 
must  be  lateral,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  true  level  of 
the  bottom  of  the  drain.  Straw  is  sometimes  put  thinly 
upon  the  tiles  before  the  earth  is  thrown  in ;  and  it  is  an  ex- 
cellent practice.  Sometimes  brush  is  laid  upon  the  straw, 
so  as  to  fill  up  the  drain  in  part;  some  benefit  is  derived 
from  this  in  deep  drains,  in  very  tenacious  clay.  Others 
lay  in  the  turf  next  to  the  tiles,  the  grassy  side  down- 
ward ;  this  is  some  trouble,  but  it  answers  an  excellent 
purpose.  Small  stones  are  frequently  laid  upon  the  tiles ; 
this  brings  the  pressure  so  unequally  upon  the  surface  of 
the  tiles,  as  to  result  in  their  fracture.  When  drains  are 
dug  on  stony  land,  they  are  necessarily  made  wider  on 
the  bottom  to  allow  of  the  use  of  the  pick  and  shovel ;  it 
is  then  important  to  pack  small  stones  by  the  side  of  the 
tiles,  so  as  too  keep  them  firmly  in  place. 

If  the  drains  are  wider  at  the  bottom  than  is  required 
for  the  tiles,  care  must  be  taken  in  returning  the  earth 
not  to  disarrange  them,  or  admit  loose  earth  into  them. 
Some  pack  earth  or  clay  between  the  tiles  and  the  sides 
of  the  ditch,  or  place  a  part  of  the  turf  or  top  spading 
upon  them.  In  filling  the  drains  great  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  leave  a  body  of  earth,  and  especially  clay  on 
the  surface.  In  grass  land  the  turf  may  be  laid  in  its 
original  position,  so  that  no  portion  of  the  land  will  be 
made  unproductive  for  a  single  season. 

In  some  instances,  it  may  be  difficult  to  known  how  to 
dispose  of  the  clay,  when  it  can  not  be  used  in  filling  the 
drains.  Mr.  Donald  ]  says  :  "  If  the  surface  soil  is  not 
too  stiff,  the  clay  may  be  spread  over  it,  and  after  being 
fully  broken  down  by  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere, 

1  James  McDonald  (England)  on  Land  Draining. 


412  LAND    DRAINAGE. 

and  separated  by  harrowing,  it  may  be  mixed  with  the 
old  earth." 

The  filling  of  drains  is  often  done  too  carelessly,  as 
though  this  were  of  no  consequence.  The  earth  thrown 
directly  upon  the  tiles,  or  upon  their  covering,  ought  to 
be  put  on  with  care,  so  as  not  to  displace  the  tiles.  It 
is  also  well  to  tread  the  earth  a  little  as  it  is  thrown  in, 
otherwise  it  will  be  so  loose  as  to  admit  the  descent  of 
the  water  too  rapidly,  carrying  with  it  much  sand  into 
the  drain.  After  the  drain  is  full,  the  remainder  should 
be  carefully  laid  in  a  ridge  on  top,  to  sink  down  as  that 
below  settles.  There  is  no  great  difficulty  in  rigging 
a  plow  so  as  to  fill  in  most  of  the  earth  removed  from 
drains. 

Minor  Drains. — These  should  always  be  cut  in  the 
direction  or  up  and  down  the  line  of  greatest  descent,  and 
should,  when  practicable,  be  cut  parallel,  or  at  most,  hav- 
ing a  slight  angle  only  to  the  sub-main  drain,  E,  J,  Fig. 
53,  page  377.  When  the  minor  drains  are  led  into  a  col- 
lecting drain,  as  G,  G,  same  Fig.  and  page  just  referred 
to,  the  drain,  G,  should  not  be  dug  at  right  angles  with  the 
outlet  of  the  minors,  nor  should  it  be  dug  at  right  angles 
with  the  sub-main,  but  should  make  a  slight  angle  with 
both,  as  represented  in  the  cut,  so  as  to  cause  the  least 
possible  impediment  in  the  flow  of  water  from  one  into 
the  other. 

The  point  of  intersection  between  the  minor  and  col- 
lecting drain  should  be  made  at  a  considerably  greater 
angle  than  the  general  direction  of  the  drains  respectively, 
as  represented  at  Fig.  83.     The  collecting 
drains  should  be  several  inches  lower  than 
the  minor  drains,  and   the    last  joint  of 
the  minor  should  be  lowered  at  the  con- 
necting end,  so  as  to  be  on  a  level  with  the  collecting 


TIME  TO   CUT   DRAINS,   AND   LAY   TILE.  413 

drain.  With  pipe  tile  the  connections  are  best  made  at 
the  joints,  by  breaking  off  a  portion  of  the  side  of  each 
piece  of  tile  which  is  to  receive  the  incoming  drain. 
Where  horseshoe  tile  are  used  the  connection  is  made  at 
the  center  of  a  piece  of  the  re- 
ceiving tile,  as  shown  in  Fig.  84, 
where  a  is  the  tile  of  receiving 
drain,  and  b  the  tile  of  the  in- 
coming drain.  When  tile  are  laid 
by  commencing  at  the  upper 
end  of  the  drain,  the  upper  end 
of  the  first  tile  laid  should  rest 
firmly  with  its  entire  end  against 

a  brickbat,  or  other  close  fitting  surface,  so  as  to  prevent 
the  ingress  of  sand  or  mud  at  a  point  where  it  is  not  likely 
to  have  a  sufficient  current  of  water  to  carry  it  off.  It  is 
always  best  to  surround  the  points  of  junction  between 
the  drains  by  small  stones,  and  these  covered  with  straw, 
or  turf,  so  as  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  sand,  silt  or 
mud. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 


OBSTRUCTIONS    IN    DRAINS. 

THE  Central  Society  of  Agriculture,  at  Paris,  having 
investigated  the  causes  of  the  obstructions  in  pipe  drains, 
Mr.  Barral  said  that  there  are  three  causes,  viz  :  deposits 
of  carbonate  of  lime,  sediments  of  hydrate  of  peroxyd 
of  iron,  and  intrusion  of  roots. 

It  was  remarked  that,  in  general,  those  obstructions  had 
a  primordial  cause  in  the  defective  laying  of  the  drains : 
some  of  them  lacked  sufficient  declivity;  others  had  pipes 
with  imperfect  joints ;  but  the  most  frequent  occurrence 
was  the  intervention  of  roots.  However,  a  fall  of  1-500 
is  sufficient  to  carry  away  the  roots,  and  these  are  found 
in  balls  at  the  exit  of  the  main  drain. 

Obstructions  are  easily  detected  by  an  extraordinary 
moisture  which  is  manifested  in  the  soil  at  the  place  where 
the  pipe  is  obstructed. 

Mr.  Herve  Mangon,  Drainage  Engineer  of  the  French 
government,  says : 

"I  have  found  obstructions  caused  by  sediments  of  carbonate  of 
lime  and  oxyd  of  iron.  I  will  present  the  result  of  my  studies,  on 
these  two  classes  of  deposits,  and  indicate  the  means  by  which  I 
prevent  them. 

"  Calcareous  Obstructions. — Spring  water  sometimes  contains  car- 
bonate of  lime  in  sufficient  quantity  to  produce  incrustations ;  that 
is,  it  deposits  calcareous  salt;  the  same  phenomenon  takes  place 
within  drain  pipes,  the  section  of  which  rapidly  decreases,  until  it 
does  not  allow  any  passage  for  water,  and  soon  the  profitable,  whole- 
some effect  of  drainage,  which  is  established  at  great  expense,  is 
entirely  lost. 

"Water,  thus  impregnated  with  carbonate  of  lime,  does  not  dis- 
(414) 


n  . 
rM€ 

VNIVERS 

V,      or 

OBSTRUCTIONS   IN   DRAINS.  415 

solve  it,  unless  it  is  acted  upon  by  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  it  also 
contains;  water  remains  limpid  as  long  as  that  gas  is  not  disengaged. 
The  calcareous  deposit  is  produced  only  when  the  quantity  of  this 
gas  is  no  longer  in  proportion  with  the  calcareous  salt  present  in 
water. 

"  In  order  to  prevent  the  formation  of  the  calcareous  obstructions 
in  drain  pipes,  all  that  is  required  is,  to  prevent  the  separation  of 
the  carbonic  acid  gas  from  the  water  which  flows  through  the  pipes. 
This  may  be  easily  accomplished  by  protecting  the  water  in  the 
pipes  from  communication  with  external  air. 

"  The  atmosphere  which  is  confined  within  the  subterranean  ducts, 
soon  becomes  impregnated  with  a  full  proportion  of  carbonic  acid 
gas,  as  compared  with  the  volume  that  is  dissolved  in  water;  this 
latter  gas  does  not  then  any  more  tend  to  disengage  itself;  water 
charged  with  its  calcareous  salt,  preserves  its  limpidity  ;  and  it  may 
flow  forever  without  impediment. 

"  This  theory  is  very  readily  put  into  practice.  A  pneumatic  pipe, 
set  upright  a  few  yards  above  the  exit,  and  others,  if  necessary,  at 
the  point  of  junction  of  the  most  important  main  pipe  drains,  will 
be  sufficient.  These  pneumatic  pipes  are  made  of  two  or  three  large 
pipes,  well  joined  together,  laid  over  a  flat  stone,  and  covered  with 
another.  Some  mason  work  ought  to  be  laid  around  and  beneath 
the  upright,  and  the  horizontal  pipes  connecting  with  it;  those  flow- 
ing in,  must  be  placed  a  shade  lower  than  those  flowing  out ;  water 
will  thus  intercept  the  air,  and  the  object  is  attained ;  that  is,  car- 
bonic acid  gas  will  be  retained. 

"  Ferruginous  Obstructions,  are  formed  by  sediments  more  or  less 
impregnated  with  oxyd  of  iron,  and  may  be  of  a  red,  dark  brown,  or 
pale  yellow  color.  When  precipitation  takes  place  in  quiet  water, 
there  appear  on  its  surface  rainbow-like  cuticles,  which  are  sunk  at 
the  bottom  by  the  slightest  motion  of  the  liquid.  That  sediment 
soon  obstructs  the  pipes  and  completely  stops  the  drain.. 

"  Waters  containing  such  deposits  are  met  with,  especially,  in  soils 
strongly  impregnated  with  either  oxyd  or  sulphuret  of  iron,  in 
marshes,  turf,  and  lands  which  are  exposed  to  filtrations  from  woods 
situated  on  a  higher  level.  The  acids  named  crenic,  and  apocrenic 
also  perform  an  important  part  in  the  formation  of  the  above  de- 
posits. The  elements  of  the  soil  have,  of  course,  a  great  influence 
in  the  case;  most  of  the  deposits  contain  large  quantities  of  clay, 
sand,  or  detritus  of  vegetables;  so  that  all  the  analyses  presented 
widely  different  results." 


416  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

Without  following  the  author  in  his  minute  chemical 
demonstrations,  we  proceed  with  a  practical  and  very  in- 
teresting experiment.  He  says : 

"  Having  collected  a  fresh  deposit,  with  the  very  water  in  which 
it  was  formed,  I  put  it  on  a  filter  and  obtained  a  perfectly  clear 
liquid;  which,  being  placed  into  flagons  entirely  full,  and  well 
corked,  or  within  an  atmosphere  deprived  of  oxygen,  remains  trans- 
parent. Having  exposed  one  flagon  to  the  action  of  pure  oxygen 
;md  another  to  the  open  air,  both  became  dim  after  a  short  time,  and 
allowed  the  ocher-like  substance,  which  is  the  basis  of  the  aforesaid 
obstructions,  to  settle  or  precipitate. 

"  This  substance,  which  is  the  same  that  settles  in  the  drains,  was 
easily  separated  from  the  liquid ;  being  exposed  to  the  air,  it  be- 
came more  and  more  reddish,  until,  after  a  few  hours,  no  further 
change  took  place;  being  then  inclosed  within  an  air-tight  flagon,  it 
soon  resumed  a  dark  brown  and  almost  black  color.  After  a  few 
weeks,  the  same  sediment  being  placed  again  on  the  filter,  the  result 
was  the  same,  that  is,  a  clear  liquid  that  became  dim  by  contact 
with  air,  and  deposited  the  identical  yellow  substance.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  matter  left  on  the  filter  resumed  the  reddish  tint  which  it 
possessed  when  placed  in  the  flagon." 

The  same  operation  may  be  repeated  any  number  of 
times  on  the  same  sample,  with  the  same  result. 

It  is  then  evident  that  this  body  presents  the  double 
quality  of  becoming  insoluble  by  its  oxydation,  and  of  re- 
ducing itself,  when  left  alone,  so  as  to  become  partly 
soluble. 

The  above  may  be  summed  up  in  the  following  two 
propositions  :  First,  the  water  which  causes  ferruginous 
obstructions  within  drain  pipes,  preserves  its  limpidity, 
and  gives  no  sediment  when  not  in  contact  with  the  oxy- 
gen of  the  air ;  second,  the  deposit  recently  formed  may 
exercise  a  reducing  action  upon  itself,  which  causes  it  to 
resume  in  a  great  part  its  soluble  property. 

From  these  two  facts,  it  is  easy  to  conclude  that  pneu- 
matic upright  pipes,  as  described  above,  will  prevent  the 


OBSTRUCTIONS   IN   DRAINS.  417 

formation  of  ferruginous  obstructions  by  excluding  the 
oxygen  of  the  air,  as  well  as  calcareous  sediments,  by 
including  carbonic  acid  gas. 

Brandt  had  observed  that  the  water  impregnated  with 
ferruginous  matter  collected  from  the  bottom  of  a  meadow, 
kept  in  open  bottles,  began  to  thicken  at  the  end  of  three 
days,  and  to  deposit  flakes  after  five  days.  The  occur- 
rence in  some  experimental  holes  made  in  the  meadow, 
produced  similar  result.  As  the  drain  water,  even  under 
the  most  unfavorable  circumstances,  does  not  admit  of  so 
long  a  stay  in  the  pipes,  Brandt,  for  the  sake  of  further 
observation,  made  an  experiment  in  which  he  employed 
three  tubes  of  120  feet  in  length,  3  feet  in  depth,  and  6 
inches  fall  (on  the  whole  length),  to  be  laid  in  the  meadow 
in  question. 

The  tube  A  was  provided  with  a  wooden  discharge  pipe 
two  feet  long,  which  wa&  perforated  in  an  oblique  line,  and 
placed  so  that  the  discharged  water  was  compelled  to  fill 
the  opening  of  the  tube. 

The  tube  B  had  a  free  discharge  pipe. 

The  tube  C  had  likewise  a  wooden  discharge  pipe,  which 
for  a  length  of  5  feet  was  stamped  around  with  clay,  in 
order  to  produce  a  damming  of  the  water  in  the  tube. 

The  works  were  undertaken  in  December,  1852 ;  eight 
days,  however,  after  the  three  tubes  had  been  laid,  all  the 
drain  water  was  turbid,  the  openings  assumed  an  orange 
color,  and  a  short  time  after,  when  it  rained,  the  tubes  dis- 
charged— owing  to  the  more  violent  intrusion  of  bottom 
water — a  large  amount  of  oxyd  of  iron.  After  a  minute 
investigation,  the  cause  of  this  occurrence  was  found  in 
the  fact  that  the  single  tubes  were  not  placed  in  the  ground 
in  a  mathematical  straight  line ;  but  that  they,  deviating 
from  the  latter  more  or  less,  had  here  and  there  some 
points  of  stoppage  in  which  the  water  remained  station- 


418  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

ary,  and  the  formation  of  oxyd  of  iron  took  place  slowly 
but  uninterruptedly.  Stronger  water  currents  in  the  tubes 
overcame  these  stopping  points,  and  carried  away  the  sed- 
imentary matter. 

The  tubes  A  and  B  were  obstructed  in  May,  1853 ;  the 
third,  C,  was  constantly  kept  clear  by  the  frequent  dam- 
ming of  its  own  water,  effectuated  by  closing  the  dis- 
charge pipe  with  a  tenon.  In  order  to  see  how  high  the 
water  was  dammed  in  the  tubes,  the  tenon  was  perforated, 
and  a  small  glass  tube  placed  in  the  perforation.  Two  or 
three  days  were  generally  sufficient  to  press  the  water  to 
the  margin  of  the  small  pipe.  After  the  removal  of  the 
tenon  the  water,  filling  the  entire  space  of  the  pipe, 
flowed  off"  with  the  deposed  substances  of  iron,  and  it  did 
so,  finally,  in  general  very  pure ;  which  result  justified 
the  opinion  that  in  this  manner  an  arrangement  had  been 
found  for  protecting  against  obstructions  from  oxyd  of 
iron.  The  draining  of  the  meadows  undertaken  in  the  fall 
of  1853  and  spring  of  1854,  was  then  executed  by  tubes  or 
pipes  20  perches  long,  laid  at  the  upper  end  2J  feet,  on 
the  lower  3  feet  deep.  The  tubes  were  laid  with  great 
care,  and  clay  slightly  stamped  around ;  the  discharge 
pipes  were  of  wood,  and  led  into  a  ditch,  which  latter 
could,  by  means  of  a  dam,  in  two  days  be  dammed  up  1 
foot  above  the  highest  point  of  the  drain  pipes.  By  al- 
ternate damming  and  discharging,  repeated  every  fort- 
night, the  drain  tubes  had  up  to  the  middle  of  1855,  re- 
mained free  from  any  obstruction. 

TischendorfF  tries  to  remove  the  obstructions  occurring 
in  the  drain  pipes  by  pressing  water  into  the  tubes  at  the 
upper  end  of  the  obstructed  pipes  by  means  of  a  simple 
pump-work.  (Zeitschr.f.  d.  Landw.,  1855,  64.) 

There  are  no  definite  reports  on  the  success  of  the  fun- 


OBSTRUCTIONS   IN   DRAINS.  419 

nel  pipes  recommended  for  the  prevention  of  intrusion 
of  quicksand,     (cf.  Jahresb.,  1854,  .7,  69.) 

Dr.  Motherby-Areusberg  (East  Prussia),  reports  that, 
in  draining  in  quicksand  he  had  left  none  of  the  means 
recommended  untried,  but  found  none  always  reliable,  and 
that  he  now  gives  preference  to  the  following  plain  method, 
the  principle  of  which  consists  in  as  speedy  a  performance 
of  the  successive  operations  as  possible,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  movement  of  the  quicksand.  The  contemplated 
ditch  is  first  thrown  out  deep  enough  to  allow  only  one 
more  cut  to  the  stratum  of  quicksand ;  into  the  walls  of 
the  yet  shallow  ditch  leveling  pegs  are  driven  sideways, 
and  to  them  is  fastened  a  cord,  by  which  the  depth  can  at 
any  instant  be  correctly  ascertained — this  being  the  most 
important  item  in  the  rapid  succession  of  operation.  The 
workmen  now  begin  one  after  the  other,  and  so  close  to 
each  other  thaj  the  necessary  free  movement  only  is  al- 
lowed to  each.  The  second  workman  commences  only 
after  the  first  one  has  made  his  first  cuts ;  the  rest  pro- 
ceed in  the  same  way,  so  that  they  stand  in  their  work 
entirely  by  steps,  and  the  last  must  constantly  be  prepared 
with  his  hook,  ready  to  receive  the  tiles  and  place  them 
accurately  and  quickly,  so  that  they  may  be  immediately 
covered  by  a  workman  stepping  over  the  ditch,  with  one 
foot  of  earth.  In  order  to  be  perfectly  sure  as  to  the 
work  being  everywhere  done  right,  stoppages  are  made 
from  time  to  time,  which,  if  arrested,  furnish  the  best 
proof  whether  the  work  has  been  perfectly  made,  or  where 
the  mistake  is  which  as  yet  can  easily  be  remedied.  In 
order  to  make  these  stoppages,  the  drain  ditch  is  closed 
from  distance  to  distance  by  a  small  loam  dam ;  the  pipe 
itself  projecting  from  this  dam  is  closed  by  a  cork ;  the 
water  is  then  permitted  to  gather  in  order  to  observe 


420  LAND   DRAINAGE. 

whether,  after  removing  the  cork,  a  complete  discharge 
of  water  takes  place. 

As  to  the  intrusion  of  roots,  Mr.  B.  de  Latour  states 
that  a  pipe  drain,  four  feet  below  the  surface,  being  choked 
up,  he  ordered  it  to  be  repaired ;  that  a  great  number  of 
thread-like  beet  roots,  ten  to  twelve  feet  long,  had  pene- 
trated arid  filled  the  largest  pipes  ;  that  in  another  field 
carrots  had  caused  the  same  accident ;  that  potatoes  had 
not  done  it,  and  he  feared  nothing  from  the  roots  of  fruit 
trees  and  vineyards. 

Mr.  L.  Giraud  and  Mr.  Th.  Galos,  from  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Bordeaux,  state  that  pipe  drains,  in  the  vineyards 
of  that  district,  are  protected  against  the  intrusion  of 
roots,  by  surrounding  the  pipes  with  straw,  after  having 
covered  the  joints  with  short  pipes  or  collars. 


CONCLUSION. 


WE  have  now  discussed  all  the  prominent  principles  in- 
volved in  underdraining,  and  have  given  such  practical 
directions  for  determining  the  construction  of  the  drains, 
that,  with  a  little  experience,  no  one  guided  by  them  will 
be  liable  to  commit  serious  errors. 

It  may  be  objected  that  we  have  not  advocated  any 
special  system  of  underdraining — that  we  have  not  adopted 
Elkington's,  Smith's  of  Deanston,  Josiah  Parkes',  Pusey's, 
Wharncliffe's,  Keythorpe's,  Ban-all's,  Wauer's,  Shoener- 
mark's,  Gropp's,  Mollerikopf 's,  or  any  other  special  sys- 
tem; or  that  we  have  not  introduced  whole  page  engrav- 
ings, exhibiting  entire  fields  of  underdrains,  or  introduced 
engravings  representing  Johnston's,  Yeoman's,  or  some 
other  farms  as  models.  We  have  deemed  it  best  to  discuss 
simply  the  principles  involved,  and  then  let  the  reader 
apply  the  principles  in  practice  as  best  suits  his  location 
and  circumstances.  We  doubt  very  much  whether  twenty 
farms  are  drained  precisely  alike  in  any  other  respect  than 
upon  the  general  principles — the  details  necessarily  differ 
in  each  according  to  soil,  situation,  finances,  etc.  We 
were  induced  to  adopt  this  method  when  we  learned  the 
fact  that,  so  far  as  crops  are  concerned,  underdrains  with 
the  mole  plows,  where  the  nature  of  the  soil  would  permit, 
produced  the  same  effects  that  the  system  of  frequent  or 
thorough  drains  advocated  by  Gisborne  and  Parkes  did. 
The  advantage  of  tile  drains  over  the  mole  plow  consists 
in  this,  viz:  tile  drains  can  be  made  in  all  soils;  are  made 


422  CONCLUSION. 

with  greater  regard  to  precision;  are  permanent;  while 
the  mole  plow  drains  can  be  made  in  clay  soil  only;  are, 
from  their  manner  of  construction,  unavoidably  subject  to 
irregularities  ;  and  what  is  more  than  all,  are  merely  tem- 
porary expedients.  But  the  physical  conditions  of  the 
soil  are  rendered  the  same ;  and  the  increased  productive- 
ness is  the  same,  whether  made  by  the  mole  plow  or  laid 
with  tile. 

With  systems  differing  so  greatly  in  their  details  as 
pipe  tile  and  the  mole  plow,  and  yet  producing  the  same 
results,  and  involving  the  same  general  principles,  it  ap- 
peared to  us  like  unmitigated  prejudice  to  be  partial  to 
the  details  of  one  system  and  exclude  all  others,  especially 
when  we  are  fully  aware  that  innovations,  changes,  and 
differences  of  detail  are  introduced  by  almost  every  one 
who  undertakes  to  drain  any  considerable  amount. 

We  would  address  ourselves  particularly  to  the  young 
men  of  the  West,  and  suggest  to  them  that  it  would  not 
only  be  well,  but  honorable  and  profitable,  for  them  to 
qualify  themselves  to  take  charge  of  drainage  works  on 
farms ;  that  is,  to  examine  the  grounds,  determine  the 
proper  depth  and  position  of  drains,  and  advise  as  to  the 
best  method  of  making  them.  Judging  from  the  tenor  of 
many  letters  addressed  to  the  writer  in  his  official  capacity, 
making  inquiries  respecting  "  drainage  engineers,"  he  is 
convinced  that  in  a  few  years  those  Avho  qualify  themselves 
for  the  position  will  have  much  better  cause  for  congratu- 
lation than  those  who  enter  the  ranks  of  professional  life. 
Drainage  will  soon  become  a  new  field  of  industry,  which 
will  demand  more  engineers  than  the  railways  have  done — 
more  "surveyors"  than  the  western  wildernesses.  It  is 
a  field  in  which  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands  will  find 
employment,  and  will  go  on  increasing  until  the  greater 


CONCLUSION.  423 

portion  of  the  whole  North  American  continent  will  be 
underdrained. 

Let  young  men  of  the  present  and  "  rising  generation  " 
turn  aside  from  the  overcrowded  ranks  of  professional 
life — from  the  fascinations  of  the  mercantile  avocation,  or 
the.  dazzling  speculations  of  commercial  enterprises — and 
become  promoters  of  the  productiveness  of  the  soil. 


APPENDIX. 


LAWS  OF  OHIO  RELATING  TO  DRAINAGE. 

An  Act  to  provide  for  locating,  establishing  and  constructing  ditches,  drains 

and  watercourses. 
[Pas**  and  took  e/«*  M*rcM  2*,  IS59.    56  wrf.  Sat.  58.j 

SECTION  L  Be  it  enacted  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  State  of 
Ohio,  That  the  county  commissioners  of  any  county  shall  hare 
power,  at  any  regular  session,  whenever,  in  their  opinion,  the  same 
is  demanded  by,  or  will  be  conducive  to  the  public  health,  conveni- 
ence or  welfare,  to  cause  to  be  established,  located  and  constructed, 
as  hereinafter  provided,  any  ditch,  drain  or  watercourse,  within  such 
county. 

SBC.  II.  That  before  the  county  commissioners  of  any  county 
shall  take  any  steps  toward  locating  or  establishing  any  ditch,  drain 
or  watercourse,  there  shall  be  filed  with  the  county  auditor  a  petition 
from  one  or  more  persons  owning  lands  adjacent  to  the  line  of  such 
proposed  ditch,  drain  or  watercourse,  setting  forth  the  necessity  of 
the  same,  with  a  description  of  its  proposed  starting  point,  route  and 
terminus,  and  shall,  at  the  same  time,  file  a  bond  with  good  and 
sufficient  sureties,  to  the  acceptance  of  the  county  auditor,  condi- 
tioned to  pay  all  expenses  incurred,  in  case  the  commissioners  shall 
refuse  to  grant  the  prayer  of  the  petition,  and  it  shall  be  the  duty 
of  the  county  auditor  immediately  thereafter,  to  place  a  correct 
copy  of  said  petition  in  the  hands  of  the  county  surveyor  or  a  com- 
petent engineer,  who  shall  thereupon,  taking  with  him  the  necessary 
assistance,  proceed  to  make  an  accurate  survey  of  the  route  of  such 
proposed  ditch,  drain  or  watercourse,  and  on  the  completion  thereof, 
shall  return  a  plat,  or  plat  and  profile  of  the  same  to  said  county 
auditor,  and  shall  also  set  forth  in  his  return  a  description  of  the 
proposed  route,  its  availability  and  necessity,  with  a  description  of 
each  separate  tract  of  land  through  which  the  same  is  proposed  to 
be  located,  how  it  will  be  affected  thereby,  and  its  situation  and 
level  as  compared  with  that  of  adjoining  lands,  together  with  such 
other  facts  as  he  may  deem  material.  It  ^shall  be  the  duty  of  the 
county  auditor,  immediately  on  said  report  being  filed,  to  cause  no- 
tice in  writins  to  be  sdven  to  the  owner  or  one  of  the  owners  of  each 
87  '  4-r> 


426  APPENDIX. 

tract  of  land  along  the  route  of  such  proposed  ditch,  drain  or  waier- 
course,  of  the  pendency  and  prayer  of  said  petition,  and  of  the  time 
of  the  session  of  the  county  commissioners  at  which  the  same  will 
be  heard,  which  notice  shall  be  served  at  least  ten  days  prior  to 
said  session,  and  an  affidavit  of  said  service  filed  with  the  county 
auditor ;  and  in  case  any  such  owner  is  not  a  resident  of  the  county, 
or  should  any  party  or  parties  in  interest,  die  during  the  pendency 
of  said  proceeding,  such  death  shall  not  work  an  abatement  of  such 
proceeding,  but  the  commissioners,  on  being  notified  thereof,  shall 
make  such  order  as  they  may  deem  proper,  for  giving  notice  to  the 
person  or  persons  succeeding  to  the  right  of  such  deceased  party  or 
parties,  and  notice  of  the  pendency  and  prayer  of  said  petition,  and 
the  time  of  hearing  the  same  shall  be  given  to  such  owner  or  per- 
sons, by  publication  for  two  consecutive  weeks  in  some  newspaper 
published  or  of  general  circulation  in  said  county. 

SEC.  III.  That  any  person  or  persons  claiming  compensation  for 
lands  appropriated  for  the  purpose  of  constructing  any  ditch,  drain 
or  watercourse  under  the  provisions  of  this  act,  shall  make  his,  her 
or  their  application  in  writing  therefor  to  the  county  commissioners, 
on  or  before  the  third  day  of  the  session,  at  which  the  petition  has 
been  set  for  hearing,  and  on  failure  to  make  such  application,  shall  be 
deemed  and  held  to  have  waived  his,  her  or  their  'right  to  such  com- 
pensation. 

SEC.  IV.  That  said  county  commissioners,  at  the  session  set  for 
the  hearing  of  said  petition,  shall,  if  they  find  the  requirements  of 
the  second  section  of  this  act  to  have  been  complied  with,  proceed 
to  hear  and  determine  said  petition ;  and  if  they  deem  it  necessary, 
shall  view  the  premises,  and  if  they  find  such  ditch,  drain  or  water- 
course to  be  necessary,  and  that  the  same  is  demanded  by  or  will  be 
conducive  to  the  public  health,  convenience  or  welfare,  and  no  ap- 
plication shall  have  been  made  for  compensation  as  provided  in  the 
third  section  of  this  act,  they  shall  proceed  to  locate  and  establish 
such  ditch,  drain  or  watercouse  on  the  route  specified  in  the  plat 
and  return  of  said  county  surveyor  or  engineer.  But  if  any  appli- 
cation or  applications  for  compensation  as  aforesaid,  shall  have  been 
made,  further  proceedings  by  the  county  commissioners  shall  be  ad- 
journed till  their  next  regular  session ;  and  the  county  auditor  shall 
forthwith  certify  to  the  probate  judge  of  said  county  a  copy  or  copies 
of  said  application  or  applications,  together  with  a  description  or 
descriptions  of  the  property  sought  to  be  taken  and  appropriated,  as 
contained  in  the  plat  or  report  of  the  county  surveyor  or  engineers ; 


APPENDIX.  427 

which  shall  be  forthwith  docketed  by  said  probate  judge,  styling  the 
applicant  or  applicants  plaintiff  or  plaintiffs,  and  the  county  com- 
missioners defendants;  and  such  proceeding  shall  thereupon  be  had 
to  assess  and  determine  the  compensation  of  such  claimant  or  claim- 
ants, as  are  authorized  and  required  by  the  act  entitled  "  an  act  to 
provide  for  compensation  to  the  owners  of  private  property  appro- 
priated to  the  use  of  corporations,"  passed  April  30,  1852,  and  the 
acts  amendatory  thereof  and  supplementary  thereto,  so  far  as  the 
same  may  be  applicable ;  and  the  compensation  so  found  and  as- 
sessed in  favor  of  said  claimant  or  claimants  shall  be  certified  by 
the  probate  judge  to  the  county  auditor  and  paid  out  of  the  county 
treasury,  from  the  general  fund,  or  remain  deposited  therein  for  the 
use  of  such  claimant  or  claimants ;  and  said  county  commissioners 
shall,  at  the  next  regular  session  after  such  compensation  shall  have 
been  assessed  and  paid  or  deposited  as  aforesaid,  proceed  to  locate 
and  establish  such  ditch,  drain  or  watercourse  as  herein  before 
provided. 

SEC.  V.  That  said  county  commissioners,  whenever  they  shall 
have  established  any  such  ditch,  drain  or  watercourse,  shall  divide 
the  same  into  suitable  sections,  not  less  in  number  than  the  numbers 
of  owners  of  land  through  which  the  same  may  be  located,  and  shall 
also  prescribe  the  time  within  which  the  work  upon  such  sections 
shall  be  completed. 

SEC.  VI.  That  the  county  auditor  shall  cause  notice  to  be  given  of 
the  time  and  place  of  letting,  and  of  the  kind  and  amount  of  work 
to  be  done  upon  said  sections,  and  the  time  fixed  by  the  commis- 
sioners for  its  completion,  by  publication  for  thirty  days,  in  some 
newspaper  printed,  or  of  general  circulation  in  said  county,  and 
shall  let  the  work  upon  said  sections  respectively  to  the  lowest  bid- 
der therefor ;  and  the  person  or  persons  taking  such  work  at  such 
letting,  shall,  on  the  completion  thereof  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
county  commissioners,  be  paid  for  such  work  out  of  he  county  treas- 
ury upon  the  order  of  the  county  auditor;  provided,  that  if  any 
person  or  persons  to  whom  any  portion  of  said  work  shall  be 
let  as  aforesaid,  shall  fail  to  perform  said  work,  the  same  shall  be 
re-let  by  the  county  auditor,  in  the  manner  hereinbefore  provided. 

SEC.  VII.  That  the  county  auditor  shall  keep  a  full  and  complete 
record  of  all  proceedings  had  in  each  case  under  this  act 

SEC.  VIII.  That  the  auditor  and  surveyor  or  engineers  shall  be 
allowed  such  fees  for  services  under  this  act,  as  the  county  commis- 
sioners shall,  in  each  case,  deem  reasonable  and  allow;  and  all  other 


428  APPENDIX. 

fees  and  costs  accruing  under  this  act  shall  be  the  same  as  provided 
by  law  for  like  services  in  other  cases,  and  all  costs,  expenses,  costs 
of  construction,  fees  and  compensation  for  property  appropriated, 
which  shall  accrue  and  be  assessed  and  be  determined  under  this 
act  shall  be  paid  out  of  the  county  treasury,  out  of  the  general  fund, 
on  the  order  of  the  county  auditor,  provided  that  no  part  of  the  same, 
except  the  compensation  for  property  appropriated,  shall  be  paid  out 
of  the  county  treasury  till  the  sum  shall  have  been  levied  and  col- 
lected as  provided  in  the  next  section  of  this  act. 

SEC.  IX.  That  the  county  commissioners  shall  make  an  equitable 
apportionment  of  the  costs,  expenses,  cost  of  construction,  fees  and 
compensation  for  property  appropriated,  which  shall  accrue  and  be 
assessed  and  determined  under  this  act,  among  the  owners  of  the 
land  benefited  by  the  location  and  construction  of  such  ditch,  drain 
or  watercourse,  in  proportion  to  the  benefit  to  each  of  them  through, 
along  the  line,  or  in  the  vicinity  of  whose  lands  the  same  may  be 
located  and  constructed  respectively;  and  the  same  may  be  levied 
upon  the  lands  of  the  owners  so  benefited,  in  said  proportions,  and 
collected  in  the  same  manner  that  other  taxes  are  levied  and  col- 
lected for  county  purposes. 

SEC.  X.  The  act  entitled  "an  act  authorizing  the  trustees  of 
townships  to  establish  watercourses  and  locate  ditches  in  certain 
cases,"  passed  May  1,  1854,  and  the  act  amendatory  thereto,  passed 
April  14,  1857,  and  the  original  act,  passed  February  24,  1853,  on 
the  same  subject,  are  hereby  repealed:  Provided,  that  no  proceed- 
ings had  or  commenced  under  any  law  repealed  by  this  act  shall  be 
affected  by  such  repeal. 

SEC.  XI.     This  act  to  take  effect  from  and  after  its  passage. 

An  Act  to  authorize  the  making  roads  and  drains  in  certain  cases. 
[Passed  February  8,  1847.     45  vol.  Stat.  50.] 

SECTION  I.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  St-ilc 
of  Ohio,  That  any  person,  persons,  or  company,  having  the  owner- 
ship or  possession  of  low  lands,  lakes,  swamps,  quarries,  mines,  or 
mineral  beds  that,  by  means  of  adjacent  lands  belonging  to  other 
persons  or  public  highway,  can  not  be  approached,  worked,  drained, 
or  used  in  the  ordinary  manner,  without  crossing  said  lands  and 
highways,  may  be  authorized  to  establish  roads,  drains,  ditches,  rail- 
ways, or  tunnels  to  said  places,  in  the  manner  herein  provided. 

SEC.  II.  The  party  desiring  to  make  such  improvements  shall 
file  a  petition  therefor  with  the  commissioners  of  the  county 


APPENDIX.  429 

where  the  premises  are  situated,  setting  forth,  in  detail,  the  proposed 
work,  and  the  situation  of  the  adjoining  lands,  accompanied  by  a 
bond,  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  county  auditor,  and  made  payable  to 
him,  conditioned  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  committee  of  view  or 
review,  as  hereinafter  provided. 

SEC.  III.  The  commissioners  of  the  county,  on  the  filing  of 
said  petition  and  bond,  and  at  their  first  meeting  thereafter,  shall 
appoint  a  committee  of  view,  and  fix  their  compensation  per  day,  to 
be  composed  of  not  less  than  three,  nor  more  than  five  judicious,  dis- 
interested persons,  to  meet  on  the  premises  on  a  day  named,  within 
one  month  from  the  date  of  their  appointment,  and  by  examination 
and  inspection,  determine  whether  the  proposed  improvement  is 
necessary  to  the  ordinary  working,  occupation  and  beneficial  use  of 
said  grounds,  swamps,  ponds,  low  lands,  mines,  or  mineral  beds;  and 
if  so,  said  committee  shall  proceed  to  lay  out  and  establish  the  same, 
of  a  width  not  exceeding  sixty  feet,  and  in  such  a  manner  as  to  do 
as  little  injury  as  practicable,  and  shall,  furthermore,  fix  and  assess 
the  amount  of  damages  which  any  proprietor  of  adjacent  lands  will 
be  likely  to  sustain,  and  report  and  return  the  same,  with  all  their 
proceedings,  to  the  county  auditor,  within  ten  days  from  the  time 
when  said  appointment  shall  be  completed;  but  before  said  commit- 
tee shall  proceed  to  said  examinations,  they  shall  be  satisfied  that 
three  weeks'  notice,  setting  forth  the  time  and  place  thereof,  has 
been  published  in  some  newspaper  in  general  circulation  in  the 
proper  county,  prior  to  the  day  fixed  upon  by  the  commissioners. 

SEC.  IV.  At  the  next  meeting  of  the  county  commissioners, 
after  the  return  of  the  committee  is  received,  said  commissioners 
shall  proceed  to  consider  the  subject,  and  if  they  shall  be  of  opinion, 
taking  into  view  the  public  as  well  as  private  interests,  that  said  im- 
provements would  be  advantageous  and  desirable,  they  shall  fix  the 
same  in  the  manner  described  in  the  petition  and  report,  and  cause 
a  copy  of  said  description  and  record  to  be  made  out  for  the  benefit 
of  the  party  praying  therefor,  unless  either  party  shall,  ten  days  be- 
fore said  meeting  of  the  commissioners,  file  a  petition  for  a  commit- 
tee of  review  and  reassessment 

SEC.  V.  In  case  a  petition  for  review  is  filed,  as  aforesaid,  the 
party  filing  the  same  shall  file  a  bond,  as  aforesaid,  for  the  pay- 
ment of  the  expenses  of  said  committee,  and  the  same  shall  be  ap- 
pointed and  act,  in  all  respects,  in  the  manner  pointed  out  for  the 
committee  of  view,  and  on  return  and  report  of  their  proceedings 


430  APPENDIX. 

of  review,  the  commissioners  shall  take  the  same  action  as  in  the 
case  of  the  committee  of  view. 

SEC.  VI.  The  party  praying  for  said  improvement,  shall  cause 
the  final  report  of  the  commissioners  to  be  recorded  in  the 
record  of  deeds,  and  shall  pay  or  tender  to  each  of  the  parties  re- 
ported to  be  injured  as  aforesaid,  the  full  amount  of  money  assessed 
by  said  committee  of  view  or  review,  before  entering  upon  the  prem- 
ises in  order  to  complete  said  works ;  and  if  the  same  shall  be  re- 
ceived, it  shall  be  in  full  of  said  damages,  but  if  it  shall  not  be  re- 
ceived, it  shall  be  deposited  with  the  county  treasurer,  for  the  use 
of  the  party  injured. 

SEC.  VII.  The  party  refusing  said  award  and  tender,  shall  not 
be  debarred  his  action  at  law  for  damages,  in  the  proper  courts, 
but  unless  a  larger  amount  is  recovered  than  the  tender  aforesaid,  or 
otherwise,  the  plaintiff  shall  pay  his  own  costs. 

SEC.  VIII.  Works  constructed  under  the  provisions  of  this  act, 
•Bhall  be  entitled  to  the  benefit  of  all  laws  for  the  protection  of 
railways  and  canals  in  this  state. 

An  Act  to  amend  the  act  entitled  "  an  act  to  authorize  the  making  of  roads 

and  drains  in  certain  cases,"  passed  February  8,  1847. 

[Passed  March  8,  1850.     48  vol.  Stat.  48.] 

SECTION  I.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  State 
of  Ohio,  That  every  petition  filed  with  the  county  commissioners, 
under  the  law  to  which  this  is  an  amendment,  shall  set  forth  the 
names  of  all  persons  interested  (if  known  to  the  petitioner),  as  well 
those  whom  it  is  supposed  will  be  benefited  as  those  who  will  be  in- 
jured by  the  proposed  improvement,  and  the  notice  required  by  the 
third  section  of  said  act  shall  also  set  forth  the  names  of  all  the  per- 
sons interested,  as  fully  as  the  same  are  stated  in  said  petition. 

SEC.  II.  Whenever  any  committee  appointed  by  the  commis- 
sioners, either  of  view  or  review,  shall  determine  that  the  pro- 
posed improvement  is  necessary,  and  shall  lay  out  and  establish  the 
same,  and  shall  find  that  damages  will  be  sustained  by  any  proprie- 
tor or  occupant  of  any  adjacent  lands,  and  the  amount  which  they 
will  respectively  sustain,  said  committee,  either  of  view  or  review, 
shall  then  determine  the  proportion  of  said  damages  which  shall  be 
paid  by  each  of  the  proprietors  of  the  adjacent  lands,  having  strict 
regard  to  the  benefits  which  they  will  receive,  and  the  award  so  made 
shall  be  held  as  conclusive  upon  each  of  the  parties  charged  with 
such  payment. 


APPENDIX.  431 

SEC.  III.  When  any  petitioners  shall  have  paid  over  or  depos- 
ited the  full  amount  of  all  the  damages  so  assessed,  and  after  the 
improvement  is  finished  in  conformity  with  the  details  of  the  work 
as  set  forth  in  the  petition,  and  in  the  manner  contemplated  by  the 
viewer  or  reviewers,  such  petitioner  may  bring  suit  in  any  court  of 
competent  jurisdiction,  and  recover  from  each  party  the  amount 
with  which  he  stands  charged  by  said  award :  Provided  he  has,  be- 
fore the  commencement  of  such  suit,  made  demand  of  such  sum 
upon  the  party  so  charged  by  said  award. 

SEC.  IV.  Whenever  it  may  be  necessary  to  repair  such  work, 
any  one  of  the  persons  benefited  by  it  may  cause  such  repairs 
to  be  made,  and  may  compel  contributions  from  each  person  bene- 
fited, on  the  basis  of  the  award,  the  just  and  fair  price  of  such 
repairs. 


INDEX 


PAGK. 

ABSORBING  qualities  of  soils,      -         -----        53,  139,  187 

Absorption  dependent  on  physical  condition,        -  141 

Absorption  of  potash,          ---------  198 

Acid,  azotic, 142 

Admission  of  water  into  pipes,  --------  364. 

Advantage  of  few  outlets,      --------  382 

Advantage  of  warm  soil,     ---------  129 

Age  of  drains,        ----------  367 

Agricultural  Institute  of  Versailles,  farm  of,       -----  180 

Alder  impedes  drains,    ----------  267 

Alimentation  of  plants,       ---------  140 

Aluminum  in  tile  clay,  ---------  325 

American  tile  maker  (DAISES'),  -         -------  345 

Ammoniac,    -        -        -         - 141,  203 

Ammonia  in  drain  water,  ---------  210 

Ammoniacal  salts,          -__-_-_-.  142 

Analogy  between  the  plant  and  the  sponge,         -  190 

Analysis  of  river  and  spring  water,         ------  207 

Analysis  of  water  from  drains,  --------  168 

Ancients,  drainage  among  the,       -------  4 

Appendix,          -----------  425 

Appropriation  for  drains  by  England,    ------ 

Artesian  wells  illustrated,  ---------59 

Ash  impedes  drains,      ---------  267 

Attraction,  water  of, 292 

Auger  holes  in  drains,  ---------  370 

Axiom  of  Alderman  MECHI,        --------  121 

Azotic  acid, 142 

BALKS'  mole  plow,      ----------  239 

BARRALL,  Mons.,  on  drain  tile  machines,        -----  343 

"        on  burning  tile, -  360 

"        quoted, 179 

Basins,  draining,        ----------  371 

Basin-shaped  fields,        ---------  372 

BAXTER,  Mr.,  on  shallow  drains,         -        -        -        -        ",-..-  22 

Beating  clay  for  tiles, 338 

Black  swamp  in  Ohio,         --. 182 

38  (433; 


434  INDEX. 

PAGE. 

BLIGH,  Walter,       -        -        -        -        -        -        -        -        -        -5,  15 

Blue  clays  of  Ohio,     ------____  330 

Boards  for  tops  of  stono  drains,      -------  258 

BOCHEN,  Mr.,  quoted,          -----_.__  234 

BOEDECKER,  experiments  of,  --------  138 

Bog  drains, 248 

Books  v.  practice,  ----------  329 

BOUSSINGAULT,  experiments  of,  --------  143 

BRANDT,  Mr.,  observation  on  obstructions,     -----  417 

Brick  drains,      --------.._  21 

"     for  drains,     ----------  262 

"     of  Ninevah  and  Babylon,  -----_..  3g§ 

BRIGGS'  tile  laying  machine,  --------  405 

BRIGHT,  Mr.,  experiments  in  draining,       ------  155 

Brush  drains,         ---_.___„.  222 

"         in  France,          -----___.  224 

"         Mr.  FRENCH,  on,  --------  223 

tl         Mr.  THOMAS,  on,         ----____  223 

BRUSTLEIN,  F.,  experiments  of, 141 

Buckeye  tile  machine,         -----____  347 

BURKE,  Mr.  J.,  statement  of,          ---___„  154 

Burning  changes  the  constitution  of  clay,  ------  325 

Burning  tile, _-_  355 

"         BARRALL,  on, 360 

Calcareous  obstructions  in  drains,  -------  414 

Caliber  of  drain  pipe  tile,  ---------  275 

Cambridge,  Mass.,  evaporation  at,          ------  88 

Canals,  ------_-____  104 

"  contents  of,  --__.____  199 

Capacity  of  pipe  tile,  -----_.__  276 

Capacity  of  soils  for  retaining  moisture,  -  49 

Capillary  attraction,  ----------  63 

Carbonate  of  lime, 197 

Carbonates  necessary  to  absorption,  -------  141 

Care  required  in  digging  drains, -  395 

Care  required  in  drying  tile,  - 353 

Catch-waters, .-.._  375 

Causeways,  underground,  described  by  PALLADIUS,  4 

"                    "              among  the  Greeks,  6 

Cayuga  county,  N.  Y.,  draining  in,     -------  163 

Cecidomyia  destructor,  - --  170 

tritici,  , 170 

Cement  for  drains,  --.-_-._.  248 

"       tile  of, 326 


INDEX.  435 


Central  Park,  draining  in,     -------- 

CHAFFEE,  Mr.,  crop  of,        ---------  1^7 

CHARNOCK,  Mr.  Charles,  experiments  on  soils,         -  79 

«                  ••'               tables  of,        .......  «0 

CHASE,  Gov.,  opinion  of,         -------- 

Classification  of  soils,          ---------67 

Clayey  and  impervious  soils,  drainage  for,     -----  178 

Clay  cutter,         ---         ........  336 

Clay,  amount  of  in  clay  soil,          -------  310 

"             "            in  loamy  soil,  --------  310 

"             "            in  sandy  soil,       -------  310 

Clay  pipe  used  by  the  Romans,  -------5 

Clay  pipes  invented  by  Mr.  Smith,         ------  23 

Clay  soils,  physical  properties  of,        -------  43 

Clay  suitable  for  drain  tile,    --------  329 

Clays,  effect  of  drought  on,         -  '      .......  291 

"      not  impervious,   ---------  291 

"      of  Ohio,  geological  position  of,         -        -        -        -        -        -  330 

CLAYTON'S  drain  tile  mackine,         -------  342 

Coal  beds,  effect  of  mining  on  land,   .......  150 

Cohesion  of  soils,  ---------- 

Cohesive  soils,  properties  of,       --------  47 

COLE  &  WALL  mole  plow,        --------  238 

Collars,  pipe,  cost  of,          ---------  266 

"         authorities  differ  on,           ___----  270 

^        for  pipes,  invented,        --------  266 

"        Mr.  GISBORXE  on,      ........  270 

"        Mr.  DENTON  on,    .........  271 

COLUMELLA  on  open  trenches,          ------- 

Color  of  soil  important,      ---------44 

"            "    varies  with  temperature.     .».---  45 
Composition  and  qualities  of  soils,     -------42 

Conclusion.    -----------  421 

Condition  of  moisture  in  the  soil,       -------94 

Condition  of  healthy  soil,       --------  107 

Conditions  of  soils,    ----------  103 

Conduit  for  bog  drains,           --------  250 

Congress,  proposition  of,    ---------  182 

Constituents  of  clay  soil,        -------- 

Cooling  tile,       ...........  359 

Cost  of  different  depths  of  drains,  ------ 

"        draining  with  mole  plow,        -------  161 

"        stone  drains  in  Ohio,          ------- 

"        tile  drains  in  Ohio,          ........  260 

"        tile,  ...........  313 


INDEX. 

TAG?:. 

Country  Gentleman  quoted,  -  119,  122,  124,  145,  150,  22-4,  253,  257 

Crops,  draining  improves,       ----_.__  353 

CROSBY,  Mr.,  statement  of,          ----..__  147 

Crushing  clay,        - 335 

Crust  of  earth,  structure  of, 57 

Cubic  yards  of  digging  in  drains, 399 

Cylindrical  pipes,  invented  by  JOHN  READ,          -         -         -         -         -  24 

DAINES'  tile  machine, 340 

DALTON  &  HOYLE,  experiments  of,           -.__._  33 

DANIOL  on  drainage,  ------____  2 

Deep  culture,          -----_____  147 

Deepening  the  soil,  advantages  of, 125 

Deep  drains,  Alderman  MECHI  on,           --____  295 

Deep  draining  sometimes  impracticable,     ---___  307 

Definition,     ---                   -__,___  j 

Density  of  soils,         -         -         -         -         -         -         _         _         _         _  45 

DKNTON,  J.  Bailey,  on  discharge  from  drains,          -  79 

"               "             on  collars  for  pipe  tile, 271 

"             on  draining  slopes,  ------  375 

quoted,          --______  125 

Depth  of  drains  depends  on  outfall,        --_-__  284 

"              "             "              soil,         -         - 284 

"       determines  size  of  tile,           _____  273 

"              "       GISBORNE  on,     ----_-__  285 

"       minimum,     -_-_-___  287 

"     of  frost,  -                                      .-.____  298 

"     of  roots,       -------___  ]95 

Description  of  first  mole  plow,   -                   -___-_  232 

DICKINSON,  Major,  introduced  mole  plow  in  New  York,  -  234 

"        quoted,                                                  -  235 

Digging  drains,  cost  of, -         -  315 

"            "        MECHI  on, __.  397 

"         underdrains, ___  394 

Direction  of  drains,   -                   ---_____  373 

Disadvantages  of  many  outlets, 382 

Discharge  of  water  from  land,    -                   ______  27  7 

"      influenced  by  season,         -  91 
Distance  between  drains,    -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -301 


determines  size  of  tile, 


272 


JOHN'S  calculation,       -         -         -         -         -  311 

"         minor  drains,  -         -         -         -  301 

Disturbances  from  animals,  _-___.  331 

Ditches,  open,  not  required  on  drained  land,  182 

Ditching  machine,  PUATT'S,         --_--.._  406 


INDEX.  487 

PAGE. 

Ditching  machine,  THOMAS  on,  .......     408 

Diversity  of  opinion  on  direction  of  drains,  -----          373 

DOXALDSOX,  F.  &  W.,  statement  of,     -         -        -         -         -         -         -     147 

Drainage  among  the  ancients,         -- 4 

«  "             Greeks,       --------fi 

"  "            Romans,        -------              4 

"  an  improvement,           ___-----! 

"  a  permanent  improvement,      ------          217 

"  carries  down  soluble  substances,  ------     134 

"  clayey  and  impervious  soils,    ------          178 

"  deepens  the  soil,           -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -119 

"  definition  of,  ---------              1 

"  does  not  impoverish  soil,     -         -         -         -         -         -         -     187 

"  effect  of  on  streams  and  rivers,        -----          m 

"  equalizes  temperature,          _____--     133 

"  external  signs  of  want  of,        ------          179 

"  facilitates  pulverization,       -------     171 

"  flower-pot  illustration  of,         ------              3 

"          garden,        --- 173 

"  grass  lands,     ---------          175 

"          history  of,  -        -         - 3 

"  how  it  operates,        --------            CO 

"  improvement  in,           ____--_-2 

"  improves  quality  and  quantity  of  crops,                                          153 

"  increases  the  effect  of  manures,    -                                                      165 

"  in  Belgium  and  Germany,        ------            25 

"          in  England,          --- 15 

"          in  France,        -- 26 

"          the  United  States,        -         - 27 

"          lengthens  the  seasons, -          112 

"  low  places,  swamps,  etc.,     -        -        -         -         -         -         -177 

"  makes  farming  easier,      -         -         -         -         -         -         -          117 

"  Mr.  DAXIOL  on,   ---------        2 

"  nursery,           ---------          174 

"  object  of,     ----------       39 

"  orchard,                                                                                                174 

"          practical, 217 

'•  prevents  "  freezing  out,"  "  winter  killing,"  etc.,      -         -    90-1<14 

"  <|r          «  heaving  out,"     -  90 

«  "          injury  from  drought, 147 

"  "          rot  in  potatoes, -169 

"  "          rust  in  wheat, 169 

"  "          surface  washing,    -------     172 

"  "          winterkilling,-         -         -         -         -         -         ^           90 

"  removes  stagnant  water,      -------72 


438  INDEX. 

PAGE. 

Drainage  removes  surplus  water,    -------  93 

"           rot  in  potatoes  prevented  by,        ______  109 

"          rust  in  wheat  prevented  by,    ------  ]i>9 

"          sandy  or  porous  soil,    -         -                   -----  178 

"          springy  places,         --______  177 

"          system  of  JNO.  JOHNSTON,    -------  27 

"          theory  of,         ---------  39 

"          tilled  lands,          --_-__-_  174 
(f          warms  soil,      ---------    yo,  128 

"           will  it  pay  ?                                                                                            -  ]  7:'. 

Drained  land,  season  of  growth  lengthened,  -----  89 

"           "       warmer  than  undrained, 89 

"         water,  influence  of  soils  on,       ______  Q| 

Draining,  ancient  mode  insufficient,  -------  20 

"         basins,    -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -  371 

"         clay  for  tiles,       ---------  335 

"         does  not  supersede  pulverization,    -         -         -         -         -  108 

"         ELKINGTON'S  system,  -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -17 

"         fund  of  England,    --------  23 

"         hill-sides,    -- -_  373 

"         meadows,        -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -  310 

"         result  of,     ----------  108 

"         slopes, -         -  375 

"         springs, -___  370 

"         surface  water,          -_--____  379 

"             "             "         MECIII  on,  ------          -  299 

"         system  of,  changed  in  1810,               -         -         -         -         -  20 

"         tile  and  soles  used  in,           -------  20 

"         time  gained  by,       ----____  ts9 

"'         tools,  -                              -         .         _  3S7 

"        want 'of,  indicated  by  plants,  ------  179 

"         what  lands  need,  -         -          •         -         -         -         -         -177 

"         with  plug,       -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         _  220 

"         with  stone  in  Ohio,       ---____          .  2f>8 

Drain  gauge,           -----_____  ;-};i| 

"     pipe*                -    '   -               i:: 

"         "     invention  of,         --------  13 

"       tiles  invented  by  Mr.  SMITH,     -------  2)1 

"      water,  analysis  of,         ---.____  208 

Drains  are  lower  levels,       -__.---__  374 

"     bog,     --_--______  249 

"     brush,       -- --  222 

"     depth  of,     ----------  287 

"     discharge  from,         ---------  g(j 

"     do  not  rob  the  soil,      ----____  ]fi7 


INDEX.  439 

PAGE. 

Drains  early,  too  shallow,  --- -21 

"     in  northwestern  Ohio,  --------  225 

"      "     England,  age  of,        --------  367 

"      "     France,         " 367 

"      "     Ohio, 38 

"      "     Scotland, 299 

"      "     Ireland, 260 

"     materials  for, 218 

"     minimum  depth  of,  ---------  287 

"     of  brick  in  19th  century, 21 

"     "     poles, 224 

"     "    rails, 226 

"    "     wood, 21,  218 

"     sheep, 248 

"     shallow,  BAXTER  on, 22 

"     size  of  tiles  for, 36 

"     stone, 220 

"        "         cost  of, 251 

"         "         depth  of, 251 

"        "        how  made, 251 

"        "        materials  for, 250 

"        "        Mr.  CALKINS,  oh,     -------  253 

"        "        under  fences,         --------  253 

"     stopped  up  by  roots,     -------  267 

"     straw  for, ...  11 

"     tile, 261 

"     trees  should  not  be  planted  near,       ------  34 

Draught,  amount  of,  obtained,        -------  241 

Drill  husbandry,  remarks  on,     --------  108 

Drought,  drainage  prevents  injury  from,         -----  147 

"        effects  of  on  clays,       --------  291 

Drying  tile,  -                                      349 

Durability  of  tile, 367 

"     depends  on  what, 369 

Dynamometer,    -----------  241 

Earthenware  of  aborigines,         --------  368 

Effect  of  drainage  on  streams  and  rivers,         -         -         -         -  111 

Effect  of  drought  on  clays,          --------  291 

Effect  of  manure,  drainage  increases,      ------  165 

Effect  of  manure  on  land,  -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -  215 

Effect  of  seasons  on  drains,    --------  380 

Elements  of  clay, 325 

ELKIXGTOX,  Joseph,  notice  of,         -------  17 

«'                 "        system  of  draining,     -         -        -         -        -         -  17 


440  INDEX. 

PAGK. 

ELKINGTON,  Joseph,  system  adapted  to  springs,      -  24 

"         treatise  on  draining,    ----__  269 

Elm  impedes  drains, __  207 

EMERSON'S  plow,         --                 _ 235 

England,  drainage  in,    -         - 15 

Erroneous  belief,         --_. (,f) 

Evaporation  a  slow  process,   -----___ 

"          Cambridge,  Mass., g^ 

"          at  Ogdensburg,  N.  Y., 

"          at  Salem,  Mass., -         -  88 

"          at  AVhitehaven,  Eng.,          ----__ 

"          from  Baltimore  reservoir,        ----__  gg 

"          in  Ohio,      -------__  gg 

"          leaves  ground  poorer,     -------  gg 

"          rate  of, ^ j 

t(          removes  gases,         ------__  gg 

when  it  commences,  -----__  gg 

Excess  of  water,  effect  of, 107 

Exit  pipes,     -                                     382 

Expansion  and  contraction  of  soils,    -------  5% 

Expenditures  on  land,    ------___  297 

Experiments  from  Patent  Office  Report,      ----._  130 

"           of  H.  B.  SPEXCER, 169 

on  clays,         ------___  jgg 

on  evaporation  and  filtration,    -  §3 

on  soils,  by  Charles  CHARNOCK,  79 

"           on  soils,  by  Dr.  Hugo  SCHOBER,           -  84 

"          on  soils,  by  SCHUKBLER, -50 

"           in  Tharand,  Saxony, _  113 

with  Bogenhausen  lime,          ------  192 

"           with  chloride  of  potash,      -----_  190 

"           with  common  salt, 192 

"           with  dried  earths,      -------  990 

"           with  garden  mold,           -._.___  10,]_ 

with  liquid  manure,  -------  j()2 

"           with  salts  of  natron,        -         -         -         -         -         -         -  192 

with  soil  from  Hungary,     -         -         -         -         -         -  ]gi 

with  sulphate  of  natron,         -         -         -         -         -         -  192 

"           with  sulphate  of  potash,    -         -         -         -         -         -  191 

External  signs  of  want  of  drainage, -         -179 

Extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  effect  of, 90 

Eyelet  holes  in  tiles,  ---------_  203 

EYTELWEIN'S  formula,    ------__.  275 

Fall,  determines  size  of  tile,        --------  272 


INDEX.  441 

PAGE. 

Fall  of  drains  depends  on  materials,        ------ 

Fall,  tables  of, -  281,313 

Fallows  on  drained  land,        --------          167 

Farm  of  Mr.  SPALDING,       - -         -        -162 

Farmers,  condition  of,   ---------          290 

Ferruginous  obstructions  in  drains,     -------     415 

Filling  drains, 412 

Filtration,  table  of 79 

Filtration  fixes  gases,     --------- 

Fire  proof  clay,  -         ----------     329 

Flower  pot,  illustration  of  draining,       ------ 

Flat  stones  for  drains,        ---------     255 

Foreign  bodies  in  tile  clay,    --------          325 

Formation  of  springs,         --         -------     100 

Freezing  out  prevented  by  drains,  -         -         -         -         -         -    90,  144 

FRENCH,  on  drainage,  quoted,     -  88,  116,  259,  279,  376 

"          "  brush  drains, 223 

"          "  water  of  pressure,    -- 109 

Friction  of  water  in  drains,    --------          274 

"         depends  on  porosity  of  soil,  -------     304 

Frost,  depth  of,      - 293 

"       influence  of  on  drained  soil,      -------     123 

Fuliginous  clay,     ----------          328 

Fuel  for  burning  tile,          -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -     359 

Gallery  of  Xature  quoted,       --------  75 

GALOS,  Mr.  Th.,  quoted, 420 

Garden,  drainage  of,      ---------  1T3 

Genessee  Farmer  quoted,    ---------  147 

GERARDIN  quoted,    -----                ..-.  43 

Germination,      -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -104 

GILL,  J.  L.,  crop  of  corn,        --------  148 

GIRAUD  on  roots  in  drains,  ---------  420 

GISBORXE  on  horseshoe  tiles,  --------  204 

"         "    collars  for  pipe  tile, -270 

"         "    depth  of  drains, -         -  285 

"        "    WHARNCLIFFE'S  system,  -------  295 

Gold  washing  illustration  of  tile  drains,           -----  269 

Gorlitz,  experiments  at,      ---------92 

Gopher  plow  of  Illinois, 235 

GRAHAH,  Sir  James,  statement  of,                -        -        -        -        -         -  153 

Grass  lands,  drainage  of,          -----  175 

Gravity,  specific,        ----------  303 

"              "        motive  power  of, 350 

GRISWOLD,  L.,  statement  of,                 „„„----  257 


442  INDEX. 

PAGE. 

Grinding  clay  for  tile,    ---------  336 

Greatest  descent,  line  of,     ---------  373 

Ground  water,  why  it  rises,    --------  99 

"        undrained,  growth  retarded  in,       ------  89 

Ha-ha  fences  in  England,       --------  331 

Handling  tile,     -- ._._  ;>j<) 

HAMOIR,  G.,  letter  from,          - 1:5 

Hanover,  draining  in,          -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -  15S 

Havana,  soils  of,    ----------  1<H> 

Heaving  out  prevented  by  drains,       ------        90,  144 

Heat  and  cold,  effects  of  extreme, -         -  90 

Healthy  soil,  condition  of, .-__  107 

Headers, ---_..  378 

HENNEBERG  and  STOKMAN*,          -         -         -         -        -        -         -         -138 

HEWITT,  Mr.,  crop  of, ..._  547 

Hessian  fly,  ravages  of,  lessened, -  170 

History  of  drainage,       --- 2 

"         "         "           among  the  ancients,   ------  4 

"         "         "           Walter  BLIGH'S  work, 5 

"         "         "           among  the  Greeks,     -                                      -         -  6 

"         "         "           in  France,      ---.----  g 

How  drainage  operates,       -                   60 

"           "         lengthens  the  seasons,      ------  113 

"    to  make  plug  drains,  ---------  227 

"    water  enters  the  tiles, ._._  3(54 

Home  manufacture  of  tile, 332 

Hollow  log  to  mix  clay  in, -  334 

HOWELL,  Hon.  John,  stone  drains  of,           --_-..  259 

Horseshoe  tiles, -  263 

Horse  power  in  tile  manufactures,       -------  341 

Hydrostatic  laws, -._  303 

HUXTABLE  and  THOMI-SOX,  134,188 

Imbibing  power  of  soils,     ---------51 

Impervious  soils,  drainage  for,         -         -         -         -          -         -         -  178 

Importance  of  tempering  clay,   --------  339 

Influence  of  soil  on  quantity  of  drained  water,        -         -         -         -  ill 

"          "  season  on  discharge  of  water,          -         -         -         -  91 

Ingredients  of  manure  retained  by  soil,  ------  183 

Injury  from  drought,  drainage  prevents,    ------  147 

Inspection  of  obstructions,      --------  382 

Intersections,  tile  for,         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -412 

Interstitial  canals, 109 

Introduction,      -----------1 

Irish  drains, 206 


INDEX.  443 

PAGE. 

Jaegers  Bodenkunde  quoted,      -------- 

JAUEERT  DE  PASSA  quoted,       -        -        -         -        -        -        •    •   - 

JOHN,  calculation  of  distances  between  drains, • 

"      experiments  of,     -------- 

JOHN,  WAEGE  and  V.  MOLLENDORF— formula  of, 2^6 

JOHNSON,  C.  M.,  experiments  on  evaporation, 

«        Prof.,  quoted,      - 123,  133,  134 

JOHNSTON,  J.,  letter  from,  condensed,      ------ 

JOHNSON,  JOHN,  borrows  money  for  draining, 

"  "      extract  from, 17,  13 

"  "      farm  of, 

"  "      illustrations  of, 

"  "      practice  of, 31 

"  "      system  of  drainage,        ------ 

Joints  of  pipes,  width  of, 365 

KENFIF.LD,  D.,  letter  from, 

Keythorpe  system, ' 

"          peculiarities  of, 

Kiln  for  burning  tile,          - 355 

Kind  of  soil,  influences  discharge  of  water,     - 

Kneading  board,        -  337 

Landholders,  rights  of, 110 

Land  in  England  and  Germany,  condition  of, 297 

"      "   this  country,  condition  of,          ------         296 

LATOUR,  Mr.  B.  DE,  on  obstruction  from  roots,   -----     420 

Laws  of  Ohio  relating  to  drainage,  -         -         -         -     ~  - 

Laying  out  drains,     ----------     370 

Legal  distinction, 

"      question, I10 

Lemma  trisulea,      ---------- 

"  "        analysis  of, 2n 

Length  of  drains,    ----------         312 

LIEP.IG,  experiments  of,       --------- 

"  "  on  nutrition  of  plants,    -         -         -         -         - 

«       quoted, -     215 

Lime,  carbonate  of,          --------- 

"      phosphate  of,  - 

Line  of  greatest  descent,          -         -         - 

Loamy  soil,  amount  of  clay  in,  --------     310 

Loan,  England's,  for  drains,  -------- 

Lois  WEEDON,  system  of  agriculture,  -------     171 

Low  places,  swamps,  etc.,       --------        177 


444  INDEX. 

PAGE. 

Machine  for  cutting  drains,         -_-_____  407 

Machine  for  making  tiles,  invented, 24 

MADDEN,  Dr.,  quoted,          --...-___  ]04 

Magnesia,  salts  of,  200 

MAGNON,  Mr.  Herve,  on  obstructions  in  drains,                                         -  414 

Main  drains, 381 

Manufacture  of  tile,     -  38,  324 

Manufacturer,  experiments  of  a, 203 

Manure,  drainage  increases  effect  of, 105 

Manure,  how  applied,      -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -  Jf>7 

"         how  it  acts, 101) 

"         ingredients  retained  by  the  soil,         -         ...  133 

MARIOTTE,  observations  on  evaporation,      ------  74 

Mark  Lane  Express  quoted,    --------  157 

Marley  clays,     ------ 331 

MARQUIS  and  EMERSON'S  mole  plow,        ______  235 

Marquis  of  Tweeddale,  farm  of, 154 

Masonry  for  exits,  ----------  332 

Materials  for  drains,  -         ---------  218 

MATTICE  and  PENFIELD'S  drain  tile  machine,  -  344 

MAXWELL  Brothers,  statement  of,        -         -         -         -          -         -  117' 

McDoxALD,  on  surplus  clay,    -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -  411 

Meadows,  draining,    -          -          -          -          -          -          -          -          -          -310 

Mechanical  examination  of  soils,     -------  105 

MECIII,  Alderman,  on  deep  drains,      ---____  2!);') 

"                "            on  digging  drains,      ---___  397 

"                "            on  draining  surface  water,      -  293 

"                "            quoted,                 - ]21 

"               "           size  of  tile  used  by, 278 

Method  of  burning  tile,          ........  359 

Midge,  ravages  of  lessened,         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -170 

Mildew  in  wheat  prevented  by  drainage,          -         -         -         -         -  109 

MILLER,  J.,  traction  engine  of,  -         - 247 

Mineral  substances  in  drain  water,           -         -         -         -         -         -  214 

Minimum  depth  of  drains,           ---.-__.  2S7 

"         fall  of  drains,           ........  275 

Minor  drains,     --------___  377 

"              "      cutting,     ---------  41 « 

Mixing  pit  for  clay,    -                                                                                 -         .  334 

Moisture,  capacity  of  soils  for  retaining,          -  49 

'(         of  the  soil,  condition  of,       -         -         -         -         -         -         -  94 

Mole  plows,    -------____  21  y 

Mole  plow,  BALES',    ------....  239 

"         "      COLE  &  WALLS', 238 

"         "      DEFEXBAUGH'S,          --..-.„.  240 


INDEX.  445 

PACK. 

Mole  plow  in  England,  ---------  231 

"        "     in  Ohio,  - 231 

"        "      invented  by  Mr.  SCOTT, 232 

•  "        "      MARQUIS  &  EMERSON'S, 235 

"        "      Mr.  NEWMAN  on, 231 

"        "      Mr.  J.  M.  TRIMBLE  on, 159,  245 

"         "      Pioneer,        --- _  232 

"         "      report  of  committee  on,    -         -         -         -         -         -         -  2-i  '2 

"        "     ROWLAND  &  FORBIS', 23ii 

"      trial  of, -  242 

"        "      WITHEROW'S, 238 

Mortar,  qualities  of,  ----------  324 

MORTON'S  Cyclopoedia  of  Agriculture  quoted,  -         -                             100,  101 

MOTHERBY,  Areusberg,  Dr.,  on  obstructions,        -         -         -         -         -  419 

Muck, 213 

Naked  fallows  on  drained  land,  -         -         -         -         -         -         -167 

Need  of  drainage,  plants  indicating,       ------  179 

NEWMAN,  Mr.,  on  mole  plow,      --______  231 

"      \          "         plug  draining,          ------  226 

North-east  Farmer  quoted,          ---_-___  260 

NOURSE,  B.  F.,  statement  of,  ---____  ng 

Number  of  tile  in  kiln,       ---------  355 

Nursery,  drainage  for  the,      --------  174 

Object  of  drainage,    ---------.39 

Observations  in  Tharand,  Saxony,          ______  113 

Obstructions,  inspection  of,         ---.-----  282 

"          in  drains, 414 

Ohio  Farmer,  article  from,  ---------  159 

Open  trenches  among  the  Romans,          ------  4 

Operation  of  drains,  illustrated,          -------  60 

Orchard,  drainage  for,    -         -         -         -         -         -         -        --_  172 

Outlet  large, 385 

"     small, 381 

Oval  tile,   ---' 2m» 

Oxygen  necessary  for  plants,  63 

PALLADIXJS,  quoted,     ----------4 

PARKES,  Mr.,  on  collars  for  pipe  tile,  -  -  -  -  -  -  270 

"  "  rain  tables  of, 78 

Pastes,  long, 326 

"  short, 326 

Patent  office  report  quoted,  -  -  -  -  -  .'•  •- ~: •-  130 

PAUL'S  machine  for  cutting  drains,  -------  407 


446 


INDEX. 


PACK. 

Peat  tiles,       --_-___.___  250 

Peculiarities  of  the  Keythorpe  system,        ----__  302 

Peep-holes,    --         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -  383 

Permanent  investment,       ------___  3^7 

Phosphate  of  lime,         ----____.  149 

Physical  properties  of  soils,        ------__  42 

Pick  and  pick-axes,        -----____  390 

Pipes,  cylindrical,  invented  by  READ, -  2-i 

"       for  drains,  first  used,  --------  264 

"       pressing,                                                                                                    -  348 

Pipe  layer,     -----------  390 

Pipe  tiles,  -- -221 

Pipe  tiles,  advantages  of,        --------  270 

"      "     represented,         --_--__._  268 

Pit  for  mixing  clay, 234 

Pittsburg,  land  in  vicinity  of,               -         -         -•                  -         -  150 

Planting  trees  near  drains,       ---_____  34 

Plants  indicating  want  of  drainage,  -------  179 

Plastic  clay,  -         - 328 

Plasticity  in  clay,        ----------  326 

Plug,  construction  of,     -         -         -         - 228 

Plug  draining,  -  -        226-228 

"            "       tools  for,           - 227 

Pole  drains,                                                                                                      -  224 

Poplar,  black  Italian,  impedes  drains,  ------  267 

Pores,  104 

Porosity  of  soils,  --- 49 

Porous  soils  with  clayey  subsoils,        ------  178 

Potash,  -  139, 197 

Power  of  soils  to  absorb  moisture,       -         -         -         -         -         -         -187 

Practical  drainage,          -- 217 

PRATT'S  ditching  machine,           -.______  406 

Precautioa  in  burning  tile,     --------  358 

Precipitations  in  Ohio,        ______---  379 

Preparation  of  clay  for  tiles, 

Pressed  tile  of  cement,         _____---_  326 

Pressing  pipes,       -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -  .       -  348 

Preventive  of  rust,     ----------36 

Price  of  tile  in  Ohio, 361 

Productiveness  of  wheat  in  Ohio,        -------  127 

Properties  of  soils,         _____----  42 

Prussia,  drainage  in,  ----------  158 

Public  lands  in  Ohio,     ---------  182 

Pug  mill,  description  of^     ---------  339 

Pulverization  facilitated  by  drainage,     ------  171 


INDEX.  447 

PACK. 

Pulverizing  the  soil, 108 

Purifying  clay  for  tile, 

Qualities  of  crops,  drainage  improves, 153 

Qualities  of  soils, 

«              "     absorbing, 187 

"      required  in  tile  olay,        -------  327 

Quantity  of  crops,  drainage  increases,        ------  153 

Quantity  of  water  required, 

Racks  for  drying  tile, :         -  351 

Rails  for  drains, 226 

Rain,  amount  of  in  Ohio,  ---------75 

«            "      "    carried  off  by  drains,  ------  379 

"      tables, 77 

"      what  becomes  of  it, -         -         -74,  101 

Rapid  cooling  of  tile  to  be  prevented, ! 

Rate  of  evaporation,      --------- 

"  Reading  Farmer,"  quoted, 122 

READ,  John,  inventor  of  cylindrical  pipes, 

Regents  Park,  draining  of, -         -         -  265 

Relations  of  soils  to  the  phosphates, 

Relief  pipes  for  sinks, 
Remedy  for  cold  lands,  - 

Removal  of  stagnant  waters. 72 

Repertory  of  Arts  and  Sciences  quoted, 

Report  of  committee  on  mole  plows,  -------  242 

Researches  of  J.  T.  WAT, 135 

Result  of  draining, ---108 

Retentiveness  of  moisture,     --------  49 

RICHARDSON,  on  rights  of  land  holders, 110 

Rights  of  land  holders,  110 

Rimming  tiles,  -         -         -         -        _ 354 

RISLER'S  investigations,          -        -         -         -         -        -        -        -  213 

River  and  spring  water,  analysis  of, 207 

Rivers  and  streams,  effect  of  drainage  on, Ill 

Roller  mill,  description  of,          _-__-__-  340 

Rollers  for  crushing  clay,       --------  336 

Rolling  tile, 354 

Romans,  drainage  among,      --------  4 

"        used  clay  pipes,     ---------5 

Roots  can  not  penetrate  wet  soil,  -------  126 

Roots,  depth  of, 125 

"     drains  stopped  by,         _..__-_-  265 
"     exposed  by  evaporation,     --------90 


448  INDEX. 

PAGK. 

Hoots  furnished  with  soluble  substances,        -----  134 

Rot  in  potatoes,                                                                     -  169 

Round  stones  for  drains,         --------  255 

ROWLAND  and  FORBIS'  mole  plow,      -------  236 

Rust  in  wheat  prevented,         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -36,169 

SALISBURY,  J.  II.,  on  capillary  attraction,  -         -         -         -         -         -  (>3 

Salt  common,  experiments  with,     ------- 

Salts  of  magnesia,     ----------  206 

Salt  prevents  rust, 

Sand  for  tempering  clay,  - -         -  327 

Sand  in  drains,      --- -- 

Sandy  or  porous  soils,         ---------  178 

"     soil,  amount  of  clay  in, 

SCHOBER,  DE  HUGO,  experiments  of,  -         -         -         -         -         -         -  84 

SCHONERMARK,  on  discharge  of  water,      ------  277 

"             table  of  distance  between  drains,  -         -  312 

SCIIUEBLER'S  experiments  on  soils,  50 

Scientific  draining  of  19th  century, 20 

Scioto  river  bottoms,      --------- 

Scoops,       - 

SCOTT,  Mr.,  inventor  of  mole  plow, 

Season  influenced  by  discharge  of  water, 92 

"      lengthened  by  drainage,     - 

"      of  growth  retarded  in  undrained  land,     -  89 

Security  against  animals,       - -  ;5S1 

Selection  of  materials  for  tiles,  --- 324 

SERRES,  Oliver  De,  quoted,      -----  7,  8 

Settling  of  soil,  -         ---------  112 

Shade  for  drying  tile, - 

Shanghae  plow, __--  235 


Maj.  DICKINSON,  on, 


235 

SIIKDD  and  EDSON  on  discharge  from  pipes, 

Shed  for  tile  manufacture, 

SHKPARD,  Mr.,  crops,  of,     • 

Sheep  drains, ._-- 

Shoulder  drains,  history  of, 

»  "         not  durable,         - 

Shovels,      --------- 

Side  drains,  

Sieve  for  draining  tile  clay,         ------- 

Signs  of  want  of  drainage,     -------  179 

Silicic  acid  in  clay,     -. 

Silicate  of  potash, 

Sinks  and  silt  basins, 


378 


INDEX.  440 

PACK. 

Sinks  and  stilt  basins  construction  of,    -         -         -         -         -         -  383 

Size  of  tile, 36,  272 

"         depends  on  amount  of  fall,         ..___-  272 

"            "         "        depth  of  drains, 273 

"            "        "        distance  of  drains, 272 

"            "        "        quantity  of  water, 276 

"        for  middle  and  western  states,     ------  278 

Slops,  draining  of,          ____-----  375 

"            "         Mr.  DEXTOX,  on,     -------  376 

Small  outlets, 381 

SMKATOX,  experiments  on  discharge  from  pipes,  -----  280 

SMITH,  inventor  of  drain  tiles,         -------  23 

"     of  Deanston, 293 

"                "          system  of  parallel  drains,  25 

Soda, 139 

Soil  absorbs  from  atmosphere, --  53 

"     and  subsoil,       ----------  57 

"     capacity  of  absorbing  gases,  -------  54 

"                   "       retaining  moisture,           ------  49 

"     classification  of,      ---------  67 

"     clay, -  44 

"     cohesion  of,     ----------  46 

"     cohesive  properties  of,       -  -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -  47 

"     color  of,  important,         --------  45 

"     deepened  by  drainage,         -         - -119 

"     density  of, 46 

"     drainage  warms,         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -128 

"     expansion  and  contraction  of,         ------ 

"     from  Havana,  experiments  on,  -------  196 

"        "     Hungary,             "        " 191 

"        "     Munich,               "        " 194 

"     how  drainage  deepens,  --------  123 

"     mechanical  examination  of,        ___----  10.3 

"     not  impoverished  by  drainage,       ------ 

"     porosity  of,        ---------- 


power  of  absorbing  and  retaining  warmth 


"     properties  of, 

"     SCHCEBLER'S  experiments  on, 

"     settling  of,  time  required  for,     -         -         -         -         -         -         -"112 

"     temperature  changes  color  of,        ------  45 

"     three  conditions  of,    ---------  103 

Sole  tiles,  " 221 

Soluble  ingredients  of  manure  retained,      ------  188 

"         substances  carried  down  by  drains,  -----  134 

Solution  of  minerals  by  plants, 211 

39 


450  INDEX. 

Sources  of  water,    -------___ 

SPAULDING,  Mr.  Nathaniel,  farm  of, lt;2 

Spades,  - _          333 

Span  level,          -----------     393 

Specific  gravity, 303 

"         "         the  motive  power,       -----__     305 

SPENCER,  II.  B.,  experiments  of,     -------  [gg 

Spontaneous  growth  on  undrained  land,     ----._     130 

Springs,  formation  of,  ------___  JQQ 

Spring  water,  analysis  of,  -         -         -         -         -         -         _         _         _     207 

Springy  places,       --------__  177 

Stagnant  water  removed  by  drainage,         --.__.       72 
STANDIFORD,  Mr.,  crop  of,       ----_...          147 

Stark  county,  geology  of,  -         -         -         -         -         -         _         _         -102 

Statement  of  B.  F.  NOURSE, 116 

"          "     F.  &  W.  DONALDSON, <         -     147 

"          "     J.  BURKE, 154 

"          "     MAXWELL  Brothers,      -------     117 

"          "     Mr.  CROSBY,     --------          147 

"          "     Mr.  STANDIFORD,  -         -         -         -        -         -         _         -147 

"     Mr.  YEOMANS, H7 

"          "     Sir  JAMES  GRAHAM,       -------     153 

STEVENS  and  LECLERC,  on  discharge  of  water,        -  277 

STOCKEN,  on  discharge  of  water  from  drains,       -  277 

STOKMANN  and  HENNEBURG,    -----___          133 

Stone  drains, 220,  250 

"          "         cost  of,     - 251 

"          "         depth  of, 251 

"          ic         how  made,         -         -         -         -         -         -         -       •  _          251 

"          "         in  Ohio,         ...         _ 258 

11          "         materials  for,  --------          250 

"          "         Mr.  CALKINS  on,  -----___     253 

"          "         Hon.  JOHN  HOWELL,  on, 257 

"          "         require  more  fall  than  tile, 274 

'•'          "         under  fences,  -----___          253 

"         what  kind  of  stone  employed,       -  251 

Stone,  how  placed  in  drains,  ----_-_          251 

"     pipes  of,    - 252 

STORY,  Judge,  on  rights  of  landholders,  -         -         -     '    -         -          no 

Straw  for  drains,         ----.___          11    25    411 

Streams  of  water,  effect  of  drainage  on,  -  -  111 

Subjects  to  be  discussed,     ------__•         .4] 

Subsoil  draining,  -------...          226 

SCHUEBLER'S  experiments  on,  ------       55 

"      warmed  by  drainage,  --------  89 


„    INDEX.  451 

PACK. 

Sub-mains,         ........         _>_..  37? 

Sulphate  of  natron,  experiments  with,  ------  192 

Surface  washing,  drainage  prevents,  -  -  172 

"       water,  draining, 379 

"  "      MECHI  on, 299 

«  "      sinks  equally,        -------  308 

Sutton  Park,  mole  plow  used  in,         -------  233 

Swamp  lands  in  Ohio,    ---------  182 

Swamps,  low  places,  etc.,  -        -        -         -         -        --        -         -  177 

Table,  Mr.  CHARXOCK'S,  of  evaporation  and  filtration,  80 

"       of  average  discharge  from  drains,         -         -         -         -         -      86,  87 
"       of  cubic  yards  of  digging  in  drains,         -----     399 

"       of  DALTON  <fe  HOYLE, 83 

"       of  evaporation  in  the  United  States, 88 

of  experiments  in  Tharand,  Saxony,    -----          114 

of  influence  of  temperature  on  discharges,        -  116 

of  number  of  tiles  in  drains,        ------          315 

of  rain  in  Ohio,         ---------77 

"      SCHOBER'S,  on  rain  and  discharge,        -----  86 

Talpa,  or  Chronicles  of  a  Clay  Farm, 153 

Tanks,  sinks  and  silt  basins, 

Temperature  changes  colors  of  soils,  ------      45 

"  of  germination, 129 

"  of  soils, 285 

"  "          increased  by  drainage,  -  128 

"  "          lowered  by  water, 107 

"  of  water  of  drainage, 286 

Tempering  clay,         --  '     327-339 

Thames  water,  ammonia  in,  --------          210 

Theory  of  drainage,  ----------39 

THOMAS,  Mr.,  on  brush  drains,         -  -----          223 

on  draining  machines,  ------    408 

THOMPSON  <fc  HUXSTABLE,  discovery  of,  -----         134 

"  "  observations  of,         -----    188 

Tile,  burning,        --___-----          355 

"     cost  of,  i>13,  314 

"      drains, 220,261 

"         "        in  Ohio,  cost  of,     -        -        -        -        -        -        -        -    257 

"      draining  a  permanent  investment,          -----          367 

"     first  machines  for  making,          -------24 

"      for  interstices, 412 

"     home  manufacture  of,         _..-----     332 

"     horseshoe, 263 

"     kilns, 353 


452  INDEX. 

Tile  laying  machine,  BRIGGS',         ----___  40^ 

"      maker,  American, -___  34;, 

"      machine,.  Buckeye,         ------__  154" 

"          MATTICE  &  PENFIELD,           ----._  .-544 

(<      manufacture  of,      ----..___  ^04 

"      where  obtained  in  Ohio,     -         -         -         -         .         _         _         -369 

"      works  in  America,          -----__. 

Tiles,         -         - 22,) 

"       drying, 34t, 

"      ELKIXGTOX  on,  ----- 262 

"      handling,      -------_._  349 

"      number  of,  in  drains,          -         - 315 

"      peat, _  250 

"      racks  for  drying, 351 

"      rimming,       ------____  354 

"      rolling,      -         - -         -  354 

"      should  be  dried  in  the  shade, -  351 

"      size  of, 36 

"           "         dependent  on  depth  of  drain?,           -  273 

distance  of  drains,            -  273 

"           "                  "                 fall,     -  272 

Tilled  lands,  drainage  for,  -         -         -         -         -         -    •      -         -174 

Time  is  money,      --                   -.  2">9 

"      required  for  settling  of  soil, 112 

"           "          to  carry  oft'  water, 380 

"      to  out  drains,    -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -410 

"      to  lay  tiles,  -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -  410 

TISCHEXDORF  on  obstructions  in  drains,       ------  4^.; 

Tools  for  plug  draining,         -_--_.__  227 

Traction  engine  of  J.  C.  MILLER, -         -247 

Trees  indicators  of  soils,         ----____  131 

"      killed  by  ditching,    -         -         -         -         -         -         -         - 

ft      should  not  be  planted  near  drains.        ____ 

Trenches,  open,  among  the  Romans, 

Trial  holes, 
"      of  mole  plows,  -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         - 

Triangular  stone  drain,  ___--___ 

TRIMBLE,  J.  M.,  quoted, 

"  on  mole  plow,        ----- 

TUCKER,  Luther,  quoted,     -------- 

TULL,  Jethro,  system  of  agriculture,       ------ 

Turf  drains, 

Underground  causeways  described  by  PALLADIUS,  -  4 

"                     "             used  by  the  Greeks,      -----  G 


INDEX.  453 

PAGE. 

Undermined  land, --  150 

Undrained  land  colder  than  drained,           ------  811 

"             "      season  of  growth  retarded  in,  89 
"             "      spontaneous  growth  on,    -         -         -         -         -         -180 

"             "      suffers  from  hot  and  dry  weather,          ...  89 

United  States,  drainage  in,         --------  27 

Urine  substances,  filtration  of, 204 

Value  of  absorption,          _.._-----     135 

VERDEIL  <fc  RISLER'S  investigations,        ------          213 

VIXCEXT,  formula  adopted  by,     --------    275 

Vox  MOLLEXDORP  &  WAEOE,  observations  of,  ...         -    90,  275 

WAEGE  &  VON  MOLLENDORF,  observations  of,     -        -        -        -        90,  275 

Want  of  drainage  indicated  by  plants,  ------  179 

Warm  soil,  advantages  of,           --------  129 

Warmth  of  soil,  drainage  increases,        ------  128 

"         power  of  absorbing  and  retaining  in  soils,  56 

Watercourses,  materials  for  keeping  open,      -----  218 

Water  beneath  pipes, 304 

"       discharge  of,  influenced  by  season,       -         -         -         -         - 

"       dissipates  ammonia,          --------  142 

"       drain,  influenced  by  kind  of  soil,          -----  91 

"       enters  joints  of  pipes,      --------  365 

"       fluctuation  in,       -        -        -        -' 39 

"       from  drains,  analysis  of, 168 

"       -glass,          -                  197 

"      ground  why  it  rises, 99 

"      line, 98 

"       of  attraction, 292 

"       of  drainage,  temperature  of,          ..._--  285 

"       of  pressure,      ----------  100 

"                "          Judge  French  on, 109 

"      power,  right  to, 110 

"       quantity  required,        -          .---_--  103 

"       spring  and  ground  to  be  removed,    ------  40 

"       stagnant,  removed  by  drains,       ------  72 

Water-worts,  observations  on,     --------24 

WAITER,  Mr.  H.,  quoted,                                                                             158,  309 

"            "         on  manures,      --------  168 

WAT,  J.  T.,  researches  of,      --------  135 

"        "       on  power  of  soils  to  absorb  moisture,      -        -         -        -  189 

Wedge  and  shoulder  drains, 220 

"                    "              "        not  durable, 230 

WKSTOK,  Mr.,  experience  with  mole  plow,      -----  232 


454  INDEX, 


PAGE. 

Weevil,  ravages  of,  lessened,       - 

-     170 

WJIARXCLIFFK,  Lord,  quoted,            - 

294 

"                system,  GISBORNE  on,  - 

-     295 

What  becomes  of  the  rain  ?    - 

101 

What  kinds  of  drains  shall  be  made, 

-     217 

What  lands  need  draining,     

177 

WHITEHEAD'S  drain  tile  machine,                            • 

-     343 

Why  drainage  deepens  the  soil,      -         -         -         - 

123 

Width  of  joints,           ______ 

-     365 

Willow,  red,  impedes  drains, 

267 

Winter  killing,  draining  prevents,      - 

90,  144 

Wooden  drains,     ------- 

-    21,  218 

-                        355 

YEOMAXS,  Mr.,  statement  of,            - 

117 

YVAKT,  Victor,  quoted,      - 

-       12 

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ALLEN  (R.  L.)     American  Farm  Book 1  00 

ALLEN  (R.  L.)     Diseases  of  Domestic  Animals 75 

American  Farmers'  Encyclopaedia 4  00 

American  Florists'  Guide 75 

ARCHER  (T.  C.)     Economic  Botany,  colored  plates,  London 1  75 

ARMSTRONG  (John)     A  Treatise  on  Agriculture 50 

BALFOUU  (J.  H.)     Botanists'  Companion,  London 75 

BALFOUR  (J.  H.)     Manual  of  Botany,  London 3  25 

BARRY  (P.)     Fruit  Garden 1  25 

BAUCHER  (T.)     Breaking  and  Training  of  Horses 1  25 

BECK  (Lewis  C.)     Botany  of  the  United  States 1  35 

BEECHER  (H.  W.)     Fruits,  Flowers  and  Farming 1  25 

BEMENT  (C.  N.)     The  American  Poulterer's  Companion 1  25 

BE.MENT  (C.  N.)     RabbitFancier 50 

BLAKE  (John  L.)     Farmer  at  Home 1  25 

BLAKE  (J.  S.)     Every  Day  Book,  or  Life  in  the  Country 2  25 

BOUSSINGAULT  (J.  B.)     Rural  Economy 1  25 

BRKCK  (Joseph)     Book  of  Flowers 1  00 

BRIDGEBIAN  (Thos.)     Young  Gardener's  Assistant , 1  50 

BRIDGEMAN  (Thos.)     Kitchen  Gardener's  Instructor 60 

BRIDGEMAX  (Thos.)     Florist's  Guide HO 

BRIDGEMAN  (Thos.)     Fruit  Cultivator's  Manual G'J 

BROWNE.     American  Bird  Fancier 5'J 

BROWNE.     American  Poultry  Yard 100 

BROWN  (D.  J.)     Trees  of  America 4  50 

fJ) 


Z  LIST     OF    AGRICULTURAL    WORKS. 

BROWN  (Thos.)  The  Taxidermist  Manual,  Edinburgh $1  00 

BUCHAXAN  (Robert)  On  Grape  Culture,  and  LONG  WORTH  (N.)  On 

the  Strawberry 63 

BUIST  (Robert)  American  Flower  Garden  Directory 1  25 

BUIST  (Robert)  Family  Kitchen  Gardener 75 

BUIST  (Robert)  The  Rose  Manual 75 

BUEL  (Judge)  The  Farmer's  Instructor,  2  vols., 1  00 

BUEL  (Judge)  The  Farmer's  Companion 75 

CAMPBELL  (J.  L.)  Practical  Agriculture 1  00 

CARSON  (J.  C.  L.)  The  Form  of  the  Horse,  Dublin 75 

CATLOW  (A.)  Greenhouse  Botany,  colored  plates,  London 1  75 

CATLOW  (A.)  Field  Botany,  colored  plates,  London 1  75 

CATLOW  (A.)  Garden  Botany,  colored  plates,  London 1  75 

CECIL  and  YOUATT  on  the  Horse,  London. . . 88 

CHAPTAL'S  Agricultural  Chemistry 50 

CHORLTON  (Wm.)  Grape  Growers'  Guide 60 

CLATTER'S  Farriery,  edited  by  Spooner,  London 1  25 

CLEAVELAND  and  BACKUS.  Village  and  Farm  Cottages 2  00 

COBBETT'S  American  Gardener 50 

COCK  (M.  J.)  The  American  Poultry  Book 35 

COLE  (S.  W.)  American  Fruit  Book 50 

COLE  (S.  W.)  American  Veterinarian. .  50 

COLEMAN  ( W.  S.)  Our  Woodlands,  Heaths  and  Hedges,  colored  plates, 

London 1  00 

COLEMAN'S  Agri-cultural  and  Rural  Economy 4  50 

Comprehensive  Farm  Record 300 

COPELAND  (R.  M.)  Country  Life 2  50 

Cottage  and  Farm  Bee-keeper 50 

COULTAS  (Herman)  What  We  may  Learn  from  a  Tree 1  00 

CURTIS  (John)  Farm  Insects,  Glasgow 8  50 

DADD  (Geo.  H.)  Modern  Horse  Doctor 1  00 

DADD  (Geo.  H.)  American  Cattle  Doctor 1  00 

DADD  (Geo.  H.)  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  the  Horse,  plain  plates. 2  00 

The  same  work,  colored  plates 4  (K) 

DANA  (Samuel  H.)  Muck  Manual 1  00 

DARLINGTON'S  American  Weeds  and  Useful  Plants 1  50 

DAWBENY  (Dr.)  Geography  of  Plants,  colored  plates,  London 1  75 

DELAMER  (E.  S.)  The  Kitchen  and  Flower  Garden,  London 65 

DIXON  (E.  S.)  Domestic  and  Ornamental  Poultry,  plain  plates 1  00 

The  same  work,  colored  plates 2  00 

DOWXING  (A.  J.)  Cottage  Residences 2  00 

DOWXIXG  ( A.  J.)  The  Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees  of  America 1  50 

DOWNING  (A.  J.)  Landscape  Gardening 3  50 

DOWNING  ( A.  J.)  Lindley's  Horticulture 1  25 


ROBERT   CLARKE   &   CO.  3 

DOWSING  (A.  J.)     Loudon's  Gardening  for  Ladies $1  25 

DOWNING  (A.  J.)     Rural  Architecture 4  00 

DOWNING  (A.  J.)     Theory  and  Practice  of  Landscape  Gardening 3  50 

DOWNING  (A.  J.)     Rural  Essays — Horticulture,  etc 3  00 

DOYLE  (Martin)     Book  of  Domestic  Poultry,  colored  plates,  London,!  25 

EASTWOOD  (Benj.)     On  the  Cultivation  of  the  Cranberry 50 

EDGEWORTH  (Mrs.)     Southern  Gardener  and  Receipt  Book 1  25 

ELLIOTT  (F.  R.)     Western  Fruit  Book 1  25 

EMERSON  (Geo.  B.)     Trees  and  Shrubs  of  Massachusetts 2  00 

English  Forests  and  Forest  Trees,  London 1  75 

Farmers'  Practical  Horse  Farrier 60 

FESSENDEN  (T.  G.)     Complete  Farmer  and  Gardener 1  25 

FESSENDEN  (T.  G.)     American  Kitchen  Gardener 50 

FIELD  (Thos.  W.)     Pear  Culture 1  00 

FLINT  (Chas.  L.)     On  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants 1  25 

FLINT  (Chas.  L.)     Milch  Cows  and  Dairy  Farming 1  25 

FRENCH  (  Henry  F.)     Farm  Drainage*. 1  00 

FRY  (W.  H.)     Artificial  Fish  Breeding 75 

Gardeners'  and  Farmers'  Reason  Why,  London 75 

GARDNER.     Farmer's  Dictionary 1  50 

GARLICK  (Theo.)    Fish  Culture 1  00 

GAYLORD  (W.)  and  TUCKER  (L,)     American  Husbandry,  2  vols 1  00 

GLENNY  (Geo.)     The  Culture  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables,  London I  50 

GLENNY  (Geo.)     The  Culture  of  Flowers  and  Plants,  London.. 1  50 

GLENNY  (Geo.)     Manual  of  Practical  Gardening,  London 1  50 

GLENNY  (Geo.)     Gardener's  Every  Day  Book,  London 1  50 

GLENNY  (Geo.)     The  Properties  of  Flowers  and  Plants,  London 30 

GRAY  (Asa)     Manual  of  Botany 1  50 

GRAY  (Asa)     Manual  of  Botany  with  Mosses,  illustrated 2  50 

GRAY  (Asa)     Structural  and  Systematic  Botany 2  00 

GRAY  ( Asa)     Lessons  in  Botany 1  00 

GRAY  (Asa)     "  How  Plants  Grow" 75 

GREEN  (F.  H.)     Class  Book  of  Botany 1  50 

GREEN  (F.  H.)     Primary  Botany 7."i 

GUENON  (Francis)     On  Milch  Cows 60 

HALE  (Mrs.)     New  Cook  Book 1  0(1 

HALL  (Miss  E.  M.)     American  Cookery  and  Domestic  Economy 1  00 

HARBISON  (W.  C.)     Bees  and  Bee  keeping 1  00 

HASKELL  (Mrs.  E.  F.)     Housekeepers'  Encyclopaedia 1  25 

HERBERT  (H.  W.)     The  Dog, by  Dinks,  Mayhew  and  Hutchinson. . .  2  CO 

HERBERT  (H.  W.)     Field  Sports  in  the  United  States r ...... .4  50 

HERBERT  (H.  W.)     Hints  to  Horse-keepers .1  25 

HERBERT  (H.  W.)     The  Horse  and  Horsemanship  of  the  United  States, 

2  vols 10  00 

40 


LIST    OF    AGRICULTURAL    WORKS. 

HIND'S  Farrier  and  Stud  Book,  by  Skinner 75 

Horses  and  Hounds,  by  Scrutator,  with  Rarey'on  Horse- taming,  Lon.l  25 

HOVEY  (C.  M.)     The  Fruits  of  America,  colored^)] ates 12  00" 

HOOPER  (E.  J.)     Western  Fruit  Book 1  00 

JAEGER  (Prof.)     Life  of  North  American  Insects 1  25 

JENNINGS  (Robert)     The  Horse  and  his  Diseases 1  25 

JOHNSON  (Louisa)     Every  Lady  her  own  Flower  Gardener 50 

JOHNSTON  (Jas  F.  W.)     The  Chemistry  of  Common  Life,  2  vols 2  00 

JOHNSTON  (Jas.  F.  W.)     Elements   of    Agricultural     Chemistry    and 

Geology 1  0(1 

JOHNSTON  (Jas.  F.  W.)     Lectures  of  Agricultural  Chemistry 1  25 

KEMP  (Edward)     On  Landscape  Gardening 1  50 

KLIPPART  (John  H.)     Principles  and  Practice  of  Land  Drainage 1  25 

KLIPPART  (John  H.)     The  Wheat  Plant 1  50 

LANGSTROTH  (L.  L.)     On  the  Hive  and  Honey  Bee 1  25 

LESLIE  (Miss)     New  Cookery  Book 1  25 

LEUCHAR  (P.  B.)     How  to  Build  and  Ventilate  Hot-houses 1  25 

LIEBIG  (J.)     Agricultural   Chemistry 1  00 

LIEBIG  (J.)     Familiar  Lectures  on  Chemistry 50 

LIEBIG  (J.)     Letters  on  Modern  Agriculture 75 

LINDSAY  (D.  C.)     Morgan  Horses 1  00 

LINDSEY  (W.  L.)     British  Lichens,  colored  plates,  London 1  75 

LOUDON  (J.  C. )     Arboretum  et  Fruticetum  Britanicum,  4  vols.  text,  4 

vols.  plates,  8  vols.,  London .25  00 

LOUDON  (J.  C.)     Encyclopaedia  of  Agriculture,  London 7  50 

LOUDON  (J.  C.)     Encyclopaedia  of  Cottage,  Farm  and  Villa  Architec- 
ture, London 10  00 

LOUDON  (J.  C.)     Encyclopedia  of  Gardening,  London 7  50 

LOUDON  (J.  C.)     Encyclopaedia  of  Plants, London 1350 

LOUDON  (J.  C.)     The  Villa  Gardener,  London 3  00 

McCuLLOCH.     Land  Measurer's  Ready  Reckoner,  Glasgow 50 

MACKINTOSH  (Charles)     Book  of  the  Garden,  2  vols.,  London 17  00 

McMAHON.     American  Gardener , 2  00 

MAGNE  (J.  H.)     How  to  Choose  a  good  Milk  Cow,  Glasgow 63 

MAIIEW  (E.)     On  Dogs,  their  Diseases  and  Treatment,  London 65 

MAHEW  (E.)     Illustrated  Horse  Doctor 2  50 

MARSH  (Geo.P.)     The  Camel,  its  application  to  the  United  States,  etc.     63 

MASON.     Farrier  and  Stud  Book,  by  Skinner 1  00 

MECHI  (Alderman  J.  J.)     How  to  Farm  Profitably,  London 75 

MILBUR.N  (M.  M.)     On  the  Cow  and  Dairy  Husbandry 50 

MILES.     On  the  Horse's  Foot,  and  How  to  Keep  it  Sound 50 

MINER  (T.  B.)     Bee-keeper's  Manual 1  00 

MOORE  (T.)     British  Ferns,  colored  plates,  London 1  75 

MORFIT  (C.)     On  Manures 38 


ROBERT   CLARKE   &   CO.  5 

MORKELL  (L.  A.)     The  American  Shepherd $    90 

MORTON  (J.  C.)     Cyclopaedia  of  Agriculture,  2  vols.,  Glasgow 15  00 

MORTOX  ( W.  J.  T.)     Veterinary  Pharmacy,  London 315 

MUXN  (B  ;     Practical  Land  Drainer 59 

NASH  (J   A.)     Progressive  Farmer (JO 

NEILL  (Patrick)     Fruit,  Flower  and  Kitchen  Gardener's  Companion.  1  00 

NORTON  (John  P.)     Elements  of  Scientific  Agriculture 60 

OLCOTT  (Henry  S.)     Sorgho  and  Imphee 1  00 

Our  Farm  of  Four  Acres,  and  the  Money  we  made  by  it 50 

PARDEE  (R.  C.)     On  Strawberry  Culture 60 

PARSONS  (S.  B.)     The  Rose,  its  Culture,  etc 1  00 

PAXTOX  (J.  P.)     Botanical  Dictionary,  London 5  00 

PEDDER  (James)     Farmer's  Land  Measurer 50 

QUINBY  (M.)     Mysteries  of  Bee-keeping  Explained , . . .  .1  00 

RANDALL  (Henry  S.)     Sheep  Husbandry .1  25 

REEMELIX  (Chas.)     Vine  Dresser's  Manual 50 

REPTOX  (H.)     Landscape  Gardening,  edited  by  London,  London 4  00 

RHAM.     Dictionary  of  the  Farm,  London 1  25 

RHIXD  (Wm.)     Vegetable  Kingdom,  colored  plates,  Glasgow 6  00 

RICHARDSOX  (H.  D.)  %  On  Dogs,  their  Origin  and  Varieties 50 

RITCH  (John  W.)      American  Architect 6  00 

RITCHIE  (R.)     The  Farm  Engineer,  A  Treatise  on  Barn  Machinery, 

etc.,    Glasgow 3  00 

RIVERS  (Thos.)     The  Orchard  House 40 

ROBBIXS  (R.)     Produce  and  Ready  Reckoner 60 

ROESSLE  (T.)     How  to  Cultivate  and  Preserve  Celery 1  00 

RUXDELL  (Mrs.)     Domestic  Cookery,  London. ...    50 

SAXTOX.     Rural  Handbooks,  4  vols.,  each 1  25 

SCHKXCK.     Gardener's  Text  Book 50 

SEEMAX  (Dr.  B.)     Natural  History  of  Palms,  colored  plates,  London. .  1  75 
SMITH  (C.  H.  J.)     Landscape  Gardening,  Parks  and  Pleasure  Grounds.  .1  25 

SPRIXGER  (J.  S.)     Forest  Life  and  Forest  Trees 75 

SPOOXER  ( W.  C.)     Veterinary  Art,  London 75 

STEPHENS  (Henry)     Book  of  the  Farm,  2  vols 4  00 

STEWART  (John)     Stable  Book 1  00 

STEWART  (John)     Stable  Economy,  Edinburgh 1  75 

STONEHENGE.     On  the  Dog,  in  Health  and  Disease 4  50 

Talpa,  the  Chronicles  of  a  Clay  Farm 75 

THAER  (Albert  D.)     The  Principles  of  Agriculture.. .    2  00 

THOMAS  (John  J.)     Farm  Implements 1  00 

THOMAS  (John  J.)     American  Fruit  Culturist 1  25 

THOMPSON  (R.  D.)     On  the  Food  of  Animals 75 

THOMSON  (Robert)     Gardener's  Assistant,  Glasgow 8  50 

THOMSON  (S.)     Wild  Flowers,  colored  plates,  London 1  00 


0  LIST     OF   AGRICULTURAL    WORKS. 

TODD  (S.  E.)     Young  Farmer's  Manual  and  Workshop ,$1  25 

TURNER  (J.  A.)     Cotton  Planter's  Manual 1  DO 

VAUX  (Calvert)     Villas  and  Cottages 2  00 

Vegetable  Substances  used  for  the  Food  of  Man 45 

WALDEN  (J.  H.)     Soil  Culture 1  00 

WALSH  (Dr.)     English  Cookery  Book,  London 75 

WALSH  (Dr.)     Economical  Housekeeper,  London 1  00 

WALSH  (Dr.)     Manual  of  Domestic  Economy,  London 2  00 

WARITER  (J.  A.)     Hedges  and  Evergreens 1  00 

WARING  (Geo.  E.  jr.)     Elements  of  Agriculture 75 

WATSON  (Alex.)     The  American  Home  Garden 1  50 

WEBB  (James)     The  Farmer's  Guide,  Glasgow 75 

WEEKS  (John  M.)     Manual  on  Bees 50 

WHEELER  (G.)     Homes  for  the  People 1  50 

WHITE  (John)     Rural  Architecture 13  00 

WHITE  (W.  N.)     Gardening  for  the  South 1  25 

WIDDIFIELD.     New  Cook  Book 100 

WILSON  (John)     Our  Farm  Crops,  London 2  00 

WILSON  (John  M.)     The  Farmer's  Dictionary,  2  vols.,  Edinburgh.  .  .12  00 
WOOD  (J.  G.)     Common  Objects  of  the  Country,  colored  plates,  Lcm  1  00 

Yale  Agricultural  Lectures 50 

YOUATT  (W.)     On  the  Horse,  enlarged  by  E.  N.  Gabriel,  London. . .  .3  25 

YOUATT  (W.)     On  the  Pig,  edited  by  Sidney,  London 1  25 

YOUATT  (W.)     On  Sheep 75 

YOUATT  (W.)  and  MARTIN.     On  Cattle 1  25 

YOUATT  (W.)  and  MARTIN.     On  the  Hog 75 

YOUATT  (W.)  and  RANDALL.     Shepherd's  Own  Book 2  00 

YOUATT  (W.)  and  SPOONER.     On  the  Horse 1  25 


ROBERT    CLARKE   &   CO.  7 

BRITISH    PERIODICALS. 

\ 

List  of  the  most  important  British  Periodicals,  relating  to  Agriculture, 
Horticulture,  etc.,  and  the  subscription  price  per  annum  at  which  they  are 
supplied: 

Cottage  Gardener  (weekly) $5  00 

Curtis'  Botanical  Magazine  (monthly) 13  50 

Edinburgh  Veterinary  Review  (quarterly) 4  00 

Fanners'  Herald  (monthly) 1  51) 

Farmers'  Magazine  (monthly) 8  00 

Floral  Magazine  (monthly) 9  00 

Floral  World  (monthly) 1  50 

Florist,  Fruitest,  etc.  (Turner's),  (monthly) 4  00 

Gardeners'  Chronicle  (weekly),. 9  00 

Gardeners'  and  Farmers'  Journal  (weekly) 10  00 

Gardeners'  Weekly  Magazine 2  50 

Glenny's  Gardeners'  Gazette  (monthly) . . ; 1  25 

Gossip  for  the  Garden  (monthly) 2  00 

Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture 4  00 

Scottish  Gardener  (monthly) 2  00 

Veterinarian  (monthly) 6  00 

ROBERT  CLARKE    &   CO., 

Publishers,  Booksellers  and  Importers, 

CINCINNATI,  OHIO. 


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